Imperialism and Colonialism: A Historical Overview

Imperialism and Colonialism

From Colonialism to Imperialism

Imperialism is the culmination of colonialism. This new stage involved occupation, especially in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific. The colonies became new territories of occupation. By 1800, Europeans occupied 35% of the land, increasing to 84.4% by 1914. Nineteenth-century imperialism introduced a belligerent character, marked by frequent wars, as colonial expansion became a fundamental economic and political objective.

The Dismemberment of Africa

In the latter half of the nineteenth century, missionaries and explorers traversed Africa, penetrating the basins of the Niger and Nile rivers, and the lands of Central Africa. From 1870, Britain and France launched conquests and colonized the continent. The British aimed to connect North and South Africa, while the French sought to control a strip across Africa, extending north towards Sudan. The King of Belgium also joined the action. German merchants settled in Central Africa, leading to conflict. German Chancellor Bismarck convened the Berlin Conference to ensure free navigation on the Niger and Congo rivers. British, French, and German interests in Africa were established, alongside Portuguese holdings in Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea-Bissau. Italy and Spain also acquired small territories. The Boer War, fought in two phases, pitted Dutch settlers against the United Kingdom. France and Britain clashed in 1898 near Lake Chad, in an area called Fachoda.

The Occupation of Asia

New powers emerged, including Russia, the United States, and Japan. Colonization concentrated mainly in India, where the British East India Company held ports in Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay. The British rivaled France for Burma. French expansion in Indochina established a protectorate over Cambodia. In 1877, France established the Indochinese Union, incorporating the kingdom of Laos. Britain imposed its control over Malaysian states and Singapore. The Russian Empire expanded into Siberia, vying for control of Afghanistan, Persia, and Tibet, leading to territorial disputes with China and the Russo-Japanese War. The Chinese government banned the entry of opium, culminating in the Opium Wars. Between 1885 and 1911, various powers encroached upon China: France in the southwest, Britain south of the Yangtze River, Russia and Japan in the northeast around Manchuria, and Germany and Britain in the Shandong Peninsula. In Oceania, Britain held Australia and New Zealand.

U.S. Imperialism

United States imperialism was built on ideological foundations, notably Social Darwinism. The prevailing view held that the American continent was its natural sphere of expansion, justifying intervention to defend its interests. U.S. expansionist policy targeted the Caribbean, Central and South America, and the Pacific. To secure control of the Bering Strait, Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. American colonialism was characterized by interference in the internal affairs of other countries and economic subjugation.

Japanese Expansionism

The Meiji Revolution ended 256 years of feudalism and initiated economic modernization, aiming to transform Japan into an industrial and imperial power. Korea and Manchuria became the primary targets of Japanese expansionism, initially supported by Western powers to curb Chinese and Russian influence. In 1876, Japan intervened in Korea, leading to war. Victory gave Japan control of Formosa, Port Arthur, and the Liaodong Peninsula. Japanese expansionism clashed with Russian interests in Manchuria.

Colonial Administration

Colonies were categorized by settlement type: exploitation colonies had few emigrants from the metropolis and focused on resource extraction, while settlement colonies had a significant European population enjoying the same rights as metropolitan citizens. Colonies were further divided into:

  • Colonies: Directly governed by the metropolis, usually by a governor, and subject to its economic interests.
  • Protectorates: Retained an indigenous government, but under the control of a parallel, dominant government imposed by the metropolis.
  • Dominions: Regions with sparse indigenous populations, governed by a white minority with a parliamentary system.
  • Mandates: Established after World War I to administer the dependent territories of defeated powers.

The Domination of Colonized Peoples

Economically, the situation worsened for most of the population. Traditional crops were abandoned in favor of plantations. Demographically, new vaccines, hygiene measures, and hospitals reduced mortality and increased population. Social structures changed, with new work rhythms disrupting tribal life and social hierarchies, separating ethnic units.

Key Terms

  • Monroe Doctrine: U.S. foreign policy regarding European powers in the Americas.
  • Meiji Era: Period in Japanese history from 1868 to 1912.
  • Plantation: Large-scale farming using regular employees.
  • Concession: Territories leased or rented to the metropolis.