Imperialism and Colonialism: A Comprehensive Overview
What is Imperialism?
Imperialism is a political doctrine that defends the right of some countries or peoples to rule over others based on the cultural, racial, and economic superiority of the former over the latter. It took place between 1850 and 1915. At the beginning of the 20th century, 85% of the Earth’s surface was dominated by European countries.
Colonialism is imperialism put into practice by establishing colonies over far or nearby territories to exploit them economically.
Metropolis: The conquering country.
Colony: Conquered territories.
Imperialism and colonialism as practiced in the 19th century were directly caused by industrialization and nationalism. They are not related to the 16th and 17th centuries Spanish and Portuguese empires.
New empires rose in the 19th century: the British Empire, French Empire, German Empire, Russian Empire, Belgian Empire, Portuguese Empire, and Italian Empire. Curiously, Spain lost its colonies during this period. In the 20th century, Japan and the United States built their own empires.
Factors of Imperialism and Colonialism
Several factors enabled the formation of colonial empires, such as:
Economic factors: The new colonial empires belonged to industrial countries such as Great Britain, France, Germany, or Russia. Without industrial mass production and factories, it would not have been possible or necessary to maintain a colonial empire.
Ideological factors: The rise of Nationalism, and other ways of thinking such as Social Darwinism, considered some civilizations better than others, so the strongest had the right to rule over the weak.
Technological advances: Faster modes of transport such as steamboats or trains were necessary to communicate easily between the metropolis and the colony. Also, new weapons such as rifles, cannons, or machine guns were used against the indigenous populations.
Medical advances: Vaccines and drugs like aspirin and quinine allowed colonizers to face new diseases from Africa or Asia, such as malaria, yellow fever, or cholera.
Geographic Societies: The exploration of the world was a great help in opening paths for conquering armies.
Colonial Society
Colonial society was divided by skin color over economic differences.
White People
The colonists. High-Class Whites were the heads of the administration and army, owners of plantations, mines, or other concessions. They lived in special areas where natives were totally forbidden except for servants and other workers. Low-Class Whites occupied the lower ranks of the administration and army, working as plantation foremen, store owners, urban workers, adventurers, and army veterans. They held strong racist ideas because this was the only way to feel superior to wealthier natives.
Colored People
The natives. High-Class Natives were members of the previous ruling class. They kept part of their properties and power and were either bribed or forced to “sell” their nations. They usually cooperated with the colonial power to keep their wealth and status. Some of them studied in the metropolis, where they were treated as equals, but when they returned to the colonies, they were treated as natives again. Lower-Class Natives were the labor force in the colonies. They worked in almost slavery conditions, had no rights in their countries, paid taxes, and worked on plantations and in mines. Sometimes they rose up against the colonial power, led by high-class natives or religious leaders.
Colonial Expansion: The British Empire
The British began to build their Empire by the end of the 18th century.
In Asia, they established colonies in present-day Australia and New Zealand after James Cook’s travels into the Pacific. Great Britain also established its most important colony in India, called “the crown jewel” because of the value of its resources, and in Burma (Myanmar). Commercial concessions were granted to private trade companies in China and Hong Kong, which originated the Opium Wars.
In Africa, Great Britain established a protectorate over Egypt during the Napoleonic Wars. The main and definitive impulse in Africa took place under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901) when most of Africa was colonized, including Egypt, Sudan, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa. In America, Great Britain established colonies on some Caribbean Islands and in Canada.
In the Middle East, after World War I, an international mandate was established over the Ottoman Empire’s possessions such as Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq, and the German colonies in Africa such as Tanzania, Namibia, Togo, and Cameroon.
Colonial Expansion: The French Empire
The French started later than the British in building their Empire. The revolutionary process and Napoleonic wars kept them very busy.
In 1830, the French took Algeria from the Ottoman Turks, starting their empire over North Africa. Later, they conquered parts of Congo, Mauritania, Senegal, Ivory Coast, and Sahara and established a protectorate over Morocco and Tunisia.
In the 1880s, they established colonies in Vietnam and Laos. They also kept concessions over some Indian ports (Pondicherry) and in China (Shanghai). After World War I, France gained Syria and Lebanon from the Ottomans.
Colonial Expansion: Other Colonial Empires
Russian Empire: From the 18th century, Russians began their expansion eastward, conquering Alaska, which they later sold to the Americans. In 1905, they clashed with the Japanese, who stopped them in Manchuria.
Japan: In the 20th century, Japan conquered Korea and established a protectorate over Manchuria. In the 1930s, they extended their power over the coast of China.
USA: In the 19th century, the USA conquered the west of North America, fighting against Mexican and Native American peoples. In 1898, they took the Philippines and Puerto Rico from Spain. In 1941, the US Empire clashed with the Japanese at Pearl Harbor.
The Congress of Berlin
Africa was an uncharted continent. There were no known states south of the Sahara. Great Britain and France began to explore and colonize some areas. This caused conflicts that were difficult to resolve because there were no rules on the colonization of lands. After some serious conflicts between the French and British, a third party, Chancellor Bismarck of Germany, invited them to a conference in Berlin (1885). The Germans, who were late to the colonial race, were looking for colonies in Africa as well, so it was not a selfless offer. In 1885, they divided the continent and the fate of its inhabitants for the next 70 years. However, although the Berlin Conference settled the “African Question,” there were still conflicts and conquests, like the Italians over Abyssinia and Libya.
Consequences of Colonialism
In colonies:
Economic consequences: Colonies developed a significant economic dependence on the metropolis.
Underdevelopment: Certain economic sectors, mainly industrial and services, remained underdeveloped. The metropolis did not industrialize colonies because they were only interested in their raw materials. This is the origin of underdevelopment that affects these areas of the world and provokes extreme poverty.
Infrastructure development: Infrastructure such as roads, harbors, and bridges were developed. However, some of them were oriented more towards resource exploitation than the population’s needs.
Social consequences:
Population growth: Vaccines brought by the colonists led to population growth, which caused overpopulation and a shortage of primary resources such as food and medicine.
Racial segregation: Systems like “apartheid” in South Africa were implemented between “whites” and “colored” people.
Genocide: Violence erupted between rival tribes (i.e., Hutus and Tutsis in Rwanda) (Civil War in Sierra Leone) that had to share the same territory.
Religious Radicalism: Religious radicalism emerged in some countries.
In colonial empires:
The end of territories for conquest led to increased tension between countries.
These tensions led to World War I in 1914.