Immanuel Kant’s Philosophy: Key Questions and Moral Development
What are the Big Questions for Kant’s Philosophy?
Immanuel Kant’s philosophy revolves around four fundamental questions:
- What can I know?
- What should I do?
- What may I hope for?
- What is man?
These questions relate to different areas of research:
- The first question, “What can I know?”, pertains to the field of metaphysics.
- The second, “What should I do?”, relates to morality.
- The third, “What may I hope for?”, falls under the domain of religion.
- The fourth, “What is man?”, is explored in the field of anthropology.
Why is “What Should I Do?” the Most Urgent Question?
The question “What should I do?” is considered the most urgent because our lives are not predetermined like those of other beings. We must actively define our purpose and, therefore, we are not merely existing in the world, but we are constantly building it and ourselves.
The Two Main Worlds in Human Life
Human life encompasses two distinct realms:
- The world of facts: This refers to what is, what we perceive, what is happening to us, what we do, and what science can investigate.
- The world of values: This refers to what ought to be, what we value, what we deserve, what we should do, and what we aspire to, which is regulated by morality.
“How Can I Make Things Go Well for Me?” and the Good Life
The question “How can I make things go well for me?” is a breakdown of “What should I do?”. It implies that if we know our desires and what we want from life, our intelligence should be able to utilize the data provided by experience to show us the means to achieve it. Regarding the concept of the good life, even if we strive for it, we may not always succeed. Therefore, one of the tasks of intelligence is to acquire as much knowledge as possible about the reality in which we live and behave, in order to promote a good life.
Is the Good Life Opposed to Living Well?
This is a difficult question that we have all pondered at some point: Does living a good life require me to behave morally? In the short term, it might not seem so. But what about the long term? Is it more likely for an immoral person to live a rewarding, pleasant, and even useful life in the long run, both for themselves and their loved ones?
Good Life, Duty, Moral Capacity, Conscience, and Right and Wrong
Regarding the good life, it is our duty to strive for it. This involves a uniquely human capacity: moral capacity. Values are inherent to our nature. We find some things preferable to others, and we lack strength in situations where we feel low on morale or demoralized. Moral conscience, which is inherent in us as people, allows us to distinguish between moral good and evil.
Immoral vs. Amoral Behavior
Immoral behavior is the conduct of those who, despite being aware of good and evil, choose not to respect it. Amorality, on the other hand, is the absence of a moral sense. It is debatable whether we can truly speak of amorality when referring to a person’s conduct. An example of an individual who might be characterized as amoral would be someone with a severe mental impairment.
Ethics vs. Morality: Relation to Sociology, Psychology, and Philosophy
Morality is the ability to distinguish between what we do and what we should do. Ethics refers to the philosophical reflection on morality through the codes described by philosophy. Sociology classifies and compares moral codes, studying their birth and development. Psychology examines the role of moral codes in human life. Philosophy is responsible for reflecting on these moral codes, which is what we refer to as ethics. It is possible to have morality without ethics.
Moral Rationalism: Morality Based on Reason
Moral rationalism asserts that good and evil are ideas that can be known, and that this knowledge is the key to moral behavior. This doctrine is defended by philosophers like Plato and his teacher Socrates.
Moral Emotivism: Morality Based on Feelings
Moral emotivism emphasizes the importance of emotions and feelings in human action. It argues that good and evil are not ideas but feelings, and that moral education can only be achieved through sentimental education. This doctrine is upheld by philosophers like David Hume.
Spiritualism vs. Materialism: The Origin of Morality
Spiritualists argue that only humans are capable of altering natural laws, such as those rooted in their own survival. They believe that the world of nature and the world of morality are two distinct realities. Materialists, on the other hand, contend that moral capacity can only arise from nature and, in recent times, from an evolutionary perspective. They believe that inhibitory mechanisms serve to curb pure aggressiveness, which would otherwise hinder the survival of the species. Human nature lacks inhibitory mechanisms capable of coping with our increased destructive capacity. For example, a person might be incapable of directly attacking another person, but they could press the button of a long-range missile capable of exterminating thousands.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg proposed the following stages of moral development:
- Preconventional Stage: Young children do not understand rules or conventions. They follow patterns of conduct solely out of self-interest, to gain satisfaction or avoid suffering. Their behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments.
- Conventional Stage: As children begin to discover the existence of rules, they enter the stage of the famous “why” questions, seeking to understand the regularities of the world.
- Postconventional Stage: This level is quite complex, and even adults may react like children. It is based on standards that are adopted to reach agreements based on more general values.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow explained moral growth through a hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid. This hierarchy, from bottom to top, consists of:
- Physiological needs
- Safety and security needs
- Belonging and love needs
- Esteem needs
- Self-actualization needs (at the top)
This hierarchy suggests that as we meet the needs at the lower levels, the needs at the higher levels emerge. In this sense, physiological needs are the most fundamental.