Immanuel Kant: Life, Philosophy, and Enlightenment Influence
Immanuel Kant: Life and Works
Immanuel Kant was born on April 22, 1724, in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). Kant was the fourth of nine children. In 1770, he obtained the professorship of logic and metaphysics at the University of Königsberg. He died on February 12, 1804. Kant’s work is generally divided into three periods. The first period is dominated by works devoted to the scientific study of nature. The second, called the pre-critical period, culminates in 1781 with the publication of the Critique of Pure Reason. The third, or critical period, includes Kant’s great works: the Critique of Pure Reason (1781), the Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785), the Critique of Practical Reason (1788), and the Critique of Judgment (1790).
Historical Context of Kant’s Life
Kant lived through much of the eighteenth century. The first half of this century can be regarded as a period of relative quiet, preceded by the so-called religious wars and followed by a series of revolutionary wars, such as the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. During this century, a common mentality emerged among the European intellectual elite, produced by shared ideals that have passed into history under the name of the Enlightenment. This common mentality aimed to achieve a general revolution in minds, illustrating the rulers and educating people to improve their conditions and realize the idea of progress, rather than producing political change through revolution.
The most common form of government in the eighteenth century was an absolute monarchy. When Kant was born, Frederick William I ruled Prussia. Under this monarch, the country achieved great internal development and strengthened the Prussian army, making it one of the European powers. In 1740, he was succeeded by his son, Frederick II of Prussia, who promoted culture throughout his life and was the prototype of an enlightened king. Upon his death in 1786, he was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II. During his reign, he prevented the spread of enlightened ideas and established censorship, which Kant himself experienced.
Sociocultural Framework of the 18th Century
Eighteenth-century society was composed of aristocrats (nobles and high clergy), burghers, craftsmen, and farmers (the old regime). The bourgeoisie had created a new vision of man and mankind that was more universal and cosmopolitan. It was educating citizens to be strong and independent, combining ethics with politics, a function that would be held by the enlightened bourgeoisie.
Kant’s Thought and the Enlightenment
Kant’s thought cannot be separated from the general lines of the Enlightenment. This movement began in England, passed to France, where it assumed greater brilliance, and later to Germany. During this time, classical metaphysics fell. Enlightenment reason maintained the following characteristics:
- Review: Against tradition, external authority, and prejudice. Reason is tolerant. Tolerance, in Voltaire’s words, is “the assets of reason.”
- Analytical: Versus the rationalists’ nativism, reason is now the ability to acquire essential knowledge in connection with experience, drawing on the scientific model of Newtonian physics.
- Secular: Enlightenment thought criticized religion, superstition, and idolatry. Faced with theocentric views, it postulated physiocentrism, with nature as a reference point.
The Enlightenment was characterized by a strong sense of optimism about the future, faith in human progress and history, and confidence in the development and perfection of man through the use of rationality. These ideas link with another of great importance that arises at this point: the natural equality of all men, which is the foundation of human rights.
The Enlightenment in France: The Encyclopedists
The enlightened spirit manifested itself with its own characteristics in each country. In France, where this movement developed most intensely, it took the name of the Lumières and was represented by the Encyclopedists. The Encyclopedia is considered the most representative work of the French Enlightenment. Some of its creators were Diderot, D’Alembert, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Its fundamental objectives were:
- To disseminate culture and knowledge to the people.
- To create a critical and dogmatic opinion.
- To criticize prejudices and traditional beliefs.
The Enlightenment project was none other than the emancipation and liberation of the individual, both intellectually and morally. The enlightened man wanted emancipation from all that oppressed him externally: authority (whether religious or political), superstition, and tradition.