Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche: 18th and 19th Century Philosophy
Kant and the Enlightenment
Immanuel Kant lived for much of the 18th century. The central part of this century may be regarded as a period of relative calm, preceded by the so-called religious wars and followed by a series of revolutionary wars, such as the American Revolution of 1776 and the French Revolution of 1789. During this period, there was a perceived illumination, a notion of revolution and education that was inserted into a dynamic account of the world and of history. The major historical event that coincides with the appearance of his major works is the French Revolution. The other is the developing first Industrial Revolution: these are the first steps for the establishment of capitalism.
Social and Economic Changes in the 18th Century
Halfway through the 18th century, European society experienced a significant population increase related to the relative improvement in economic conditions, the increased performance in agriculture, and the early Industrial Revolution, even though it did not extend to the cities. Despite this, the economies of most states were at low levels as a result of wars. Eighteenth-century society was composed of aristocrats (nobles and high clergy), the bourgeoisie, and peasants. The bourgeoisie had been the creator of a new vision of man and of humanity—more common, universal, and cosmopolitan—without relinquishing the conscience of the individual citizen or a member of a state that was still largely a feudal society. The spirit of the Enlightenment was an era of emancipation and intellectual and moral liberation.
Kant’s Education and Philosophy
Kant was educated in Pietism, a religion of Lutheran origin, influenced by English Puritanism and founded by Philipp J. Spener in the 17th century. Pietism understood the Christian faith as an active relationship with God, rather than as a set of dogmas, and argued that the world could be Christianized by the individual practice of believers. He had a conception of the Church as an “invisible” entity that included all of humanity. Kant studied at the University of Königsberg. His thinking is part of the Enlightenment, and his works cover many different subjects. Regarding the theory of knowledge, his most important letter is the Critique of Pure Reason.
Nietzsche and 19th Century Context
Historical and Sociocultural Context
- Industrial Revolution (19th Century): The second revolution and financial capitalism.
- Revolutions and Counterrevolutions: The Napoleonic Empire, the Holy Alliance, liberal revolutions, democratic nationalists, and the unifications of Italy and Germany.
- Workers’ Movements: The foundation of the 1st International Commune of Paris.
- Germany as the First European Power: France wins over Austria.
Cultural and Philosophical Movements
- Romanticism: A critical reason for absolute knowledge, an exaltation of nature and life, a celebration of music and opera, and nationalist fervor and tradition.
- Positivism: A belief in progress and the ability of science. Auguste Comte and Darwin (with his theory of evolution and natural selection) stand out.
- Philosophical Movements: German idealism as an attempt to develop the ideals of the Enlightenment, the materialism of the Hegelian left, the positivism of Auguste Comte, and the dialectical and historical materialism of Marx.