Iberian Peninsula: Early Hominids, Al-Andalus, Reconquista
Hominization Process in the Iberian Peninsula
Prehistory: A period spanning from the appearance of the first human ancestors until the invention of writing. It is divided into the Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Metal Ages. This period includes the process of hominization.
Hominid: A representative of the biological family related to Homo sapiens. Hominids split from other primates in Africa approximately 8.1 million years ago.
The chronology of the oldest human settlement in the Iberian Peninsula and Europe is evidenced at the Gran Dolina site in Atapuerca (Burgos), where fossils of Homo antecessor have been found. The genesis of Homo antecessor appears to be in Africa, with subsequent emigration to the Middle East and Europe. The evolution from Homo antecessor to Homo heidelbergensis also occurred in Europe, starting around 610,000 years ago (with remains found at Sima de los Huesos [Atapuerca], and in England, Germany, etc.). Homo neanderthalensis began its development in Europe approximately 125,100 years ago and was eventually displaced by Homo sapiens, disappearing around 10,000 BC. The direct ancestor of Homo sapiens, Homo rhodesiensis, evolved from Homo antecessor in Africa around 610,000 years ago. The origin of our species, Homo sapiens, also appears to be in Africa, from where they migrated to Asia and Europe around 41,000 years ago.
Political Developments in Al-Andalus
Reasons for the Muslim Conquest
- Internal Crisis of the Visigothic State: Continuous problems related to royal succession. The final conflict pitted supporters of King Roderic against the children of Witiza, who sought assistance from Muslim forces in the northern Maghreb.
- Expansion of Islam: The ongoing spread of Islam from the Middle East towards the Caucasus, other parts of Asia, and North Africa.
The Conquest of Hispania (711-716)
In 711, an army, largely composed of Berbers and led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. King Roderic was defeated at the Battle of Guadalete. Subsequent military campaigns encountered very little opposition. Reinforcements were sent to Toledo, which was captured with minimal resistance.
Dependent Emirate of Córdoba (714-756)
Córdoba became the capital of Al-Andalus. The government was led by an emir who was dependent on the Umayyad Caliph of Damascus. Raids were conducted into southern Gaul until the Frankish victory at the Battle of Poitiers in 732. Conquered lands were divided among former owners who surrendered, Arab soldiers, and Berber soldiers. The Berbers often received poorer lands in the northern sub-plateau, which led to conflict and allowed for the emergence of small Christian enclaves in the north.
Independent Emirate of Córdoba (756-929)
In 750, members of the Umayyad dynasty were massacred by the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman I, an Umayyad survivor, fled and sought refuge in Al-Andalus in 755. The following year, he defeated the ruling emir in Córdoba and proclaimed himself an independent emir. Internal conflicts re-emerged under his successors.
Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031)
Abd al-Rahman III brought an end to the fragmentation of Al-Andalus and proclaimed himself Caliph in 929. He worked to halt the advance of the Christian kingdoms in the north and succeeded in reversing their gains. Al-Hakam II maintained the splendor of the Caliphate of Córdoba, which became a prominent cultural center of its time. Hisham II entrusted power to his minister, Almanzor (Al-Mansur), who established a de facto dictatorship and conducted numerous aceifas (punitive military campaigns). Upon Almanzor’s death in 1002, a series of internal conflicts began, escalating into a civil war that ultimately led to the disintegration of the Caliphate in 1031 into various Taifa kingdoms.
Main Stages of the Reconquista
Reconquista: The historical period and process by which the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula conquered the territories of Al-Andalus.
Key Stages:
11th Century Advances
The collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba in 1031 and the subsequent fragmentation of Muslim rule into Taifa kingdoms facilitated Christian advances. Alfonso VI, King of Castile and León, captured Toledo and a significant surrounding territory in 1085. This prompted the Almoravids from North Africa to enter the peninsula to halt the Christian expansion, though they were unable to retake Toledo.
12th Century Expansion and Treaties
Christian kingdoms continued to expand their domains. Christian rulers signed treaties, such as the Treaty of Tudilén and the Treaty of Cazorla, to delineate their respective zones of conquest. Warfare intensified with the arrival of the Almohads, who recovered Almería and defeated Castilian forces at the Battle of Alarcos in 1195.
13th Century: Decisive Victories
Pope Innocent III called for a crusade in the Iberian Peninsula. The decisive Christian victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 marked a crucial turning point, accelerating the decline of Muslim rule. By the late 13th century, Muslim dominion in Iberia was largely confined to the Emirate of Granada. Castile established itself as the most powerful Christian kingdom on the peninsula.
15th Century: Granada’s Fall
The Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, completed the Reconquista by conquering the Nasrid Emirate of Granada in 1492.