Hume’s Empiricism: Knowledge, Morality, and Political Thought
Hume’s Philosophy
Theory of Knowledge: Empiricism
David Hume is a central figure in empiricism, the school of thought asserting that all knowledge originates from experience. Hume rejects the notion of innate ideas, arguing that the mind’s contents are perceptions, divided into impressions (direct sensory experiences) and ideas (copies of impressions).
Impressions are further categorized as those of sensation (from the senses, like pleasure and pain) and reflection (feelings reacting to sensory impressions or ideas). Ideas are either simple (corresponding to simple impressions) or complex (formed by memory or imagination). Memory preserves the form and order of original impressions, while imagination alters the sequence based on association principles: resemblance, contiguity, and causation.
Hume identifies two modes of knowledge: relations of ideas (a priori reasoning) and matters of fact (a posteriori reasoning). The former involves analytical, necessary propositions affirming relationships between ideas, understood without experience. The latter involves synthetic, probable propositions. Knowledge of reality stems from a posteriori reasoning, with truth verified by appealing to impressions.
Hume critiques the scientific use of the principle of causality, which posits that a cause invariably produces a specific effect. He argues that we lack a direct impression of this connection. Cause-effect relationships are affirmed through experience, custom, and habit, which generate belief but not certainty. Hume also criticizes the three Cartesian substances (self, external reality, and God), arguing their existence cannot be known, thus advocating skepticism.
He denies the existence of a permanent, stable self, as we lack a constant impression of it. Instead, our self is a succession of impressions unified by memory, a psychological construct rather than a substance. Hume questions the existence of external reality based on his critique of causality. We cannot definitively say our impressions originate from an external source, thus we cannot be certain of extra-mental reality. Similarly, God’s existence cannot be proven, as we cannot experience God.
In conclusion, Hume embraces skepticism (regarding the provability of Cartesian substances) and phenomenalism (knowledge limited to mental impressions). His skepticism is moderate, aiming to eliminate prejudice and encourage progress in knowledge, albeit probable and useful.
The Moral Sentiment
Hume posits that reason is subordinate to passions and feelings are the foundation of moral judgments. An action’s virtue or vice depends on an individual’s moral sense, an empathetic ability common to humanity, explaining agreement in judging actions. Approval or censure arises from an impartial observer’s perspective, a concept known as moral emotivism.
Political Ideas
Hume argues that communal living is more beneficial than individual freedom. Similarly, accepting a government to lead society is valuable. Government ensures individuals do not prioritize self-interest over public interest, and justice is based on useful conventions. The origin of the state can only be understood through history. Resisting arrest is justified only in exceptional circumstances and when it serves the general interest.