Hume’s Empiricism and Epistemology
Hume: Empiricist Philosopher
Empiricism likely justifies the validity of theories throughout experimentation, in relation to possible experience. A fundamental requirement is the scientific method, where hypotheses and theories must allow for the possibility of being supported by experimental observation.
Epistemology
Epistemology is the study of the extent of our knowledge before attempting to understand things. All science and knowledge are derived from human nature. For Hume, knowledge boils down to perceptions of the mind that we obtain through experience. Our first impressions are immediate data of experience, presented clearly and intensely, manifesting with force and vivacity. Ideas are copies and images of the weaker imprints of thought.
Hume divides these impressions into two types:
- Sensation: Original perception caused by objects.
- Reflection: Perception caused by the power of the mind and God, reflecting on an idea’s origins.
Hume further divides ideas into:
- Simple Ideas: Those that cannot be divided.
- Complex Ideas: Those that can be divided.
Association of Ideas
Hume claims that there is an association of ideas, where any idea refers to an impression. However, this is not always true. Impressions are created in the imagination, and ideas produced by the combination of ideas with others lead to more complex concepts and memories, where ideas are preserved.
Hume states that ideas are combined with the imagination based on several principles:
- Similarity: Ideas are combined when one is like another.
- Continuity: Ideas with a temporary or spatial proximity can be associated.
- Causality: Every rightful cause has an effect.
Objects of Knowledge
Hume outlines two objects of knowledge:
- Matters of Fact: Synthetic ratios that are contingent, and their opposite is possible. These define the empirical sciences, based on demonstrable facts. Hume adds that there are criteria of truth related to matters of fact, which serve to demonstrate whether a matter is true or not, based on experience. Such knowledge is obtained by direct observation or inductive inference. This knowledge is probable, not necessary, based on experience, and can change. Hume distinguishes synthetic propositions that might conflict.
- Relations of Ideas: These comprise the formal sciences and are necessary, analytical, and their opposite is impossible. They are obtained from the terms that compose them. Analytic propositions cannot conflict. Both are related by demonstration.
For Hume, access to relations of ideas is through intuition – we know them immediately. Reason is the gateway to the relation of ideas. Through imagination, we access matters of fact. We have two cognitive pathways.
Critique of Metaphysical Concepts
Causality
Causality is understood as a necessary connection where one phenomenon is followed by another. If it were not a truly necessary connection, it would be a relation of ideas. This principle is given by human convention. Humans believe that cause-and-effect relationships will always occur.
For Hume, these relationships form beliefs, so the causal connection is considered necessary. However, he believes it is necessary due to custom. From a given fact, we derive another. From the customs of this relationship, we derive the knowledge that the future will be like the past, such as the sun rising and setting.
The mistake comes from thinking that nature is uniform and regular. The empirical sciences are comprised of probability statements and the thought that nature is uniform, which leads to moderate skepticism. No one can know with certainty, but only with some probability.
Substance
The concept of substance is not formed by insight but by a series of simple ideas united by imagination at will.
The Self
All that we perceive are perceptions. We are a set of perceptions, and imagination assumes a subject.
God
Through a series of effects and ideas, we assume the existence of God, which is not necessary because we might think otherwise. There is no impression of God. God is deduced from the effects of experience, which imagination relates to one another, giving rise to the concept of God.
Moral Emotivism
For Hume, reason is required only to examine the truth or falsity of propositions that express ideas. It cannot judge morality. Moral judgments come from experience, and these moral judgments influence us to act in particular ways. Their objective is to assess what is good and what is bad.
For Hume, moral judgments depend on a sense of approval and disapproval, liking or disliking. Moral emotivism posits that judgments about good and evil and our actions depend on feelings. That which gives pleasure is what we tend to do.
This doctrine leads to utilitarianism, where what is moral is what is useful, providing us with pleasure and thus being good. All actions of human beings are designed to be useful.
Hume speaks of the naturalistic fallacy, which is to derive or deduce what should be from what is.