Humanization & Romanization of the Iberian Peninsula: A Historical Overview
Humanization in the Iberian Peninsula
The process of humanization began in Africa 5 million years ago. Homo ergaster migrated from Africa approximately 1.5 million years ago, evolving into Homo erectus in Asia and Homo antecessor in Europe. The oldest Homo antecessor remains (800,000 BC) were discovered in Atapuerca, Burgos. These tall, strong hominins, with a cranial capacity of around 1000cm3, were hunter-gatherers. Remains of Homo heidelbergensis, dating back 300,000 years, have also been found in Atapuerca. Research suggests that Homo neanderthalensis, a more robust species with a larger cranial capacity, emerged from Homo heidelbergensis. Neanderthals hunted large mammals and likely held spiritual beliefs. Around 40,000 years ago, Homo sapiens sapiens (Cro-Magnon), originating from Africa, replaced Neanderthals. Cro-Magnons possessed a more complex social organization, advanced tools, and practiced both mobile and cave art, with several examples found on the Iberian Peninsula.
Colonization: Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians
During the first millennium BC, the Tartessian culture flourished in Western Andalusia and Southern Portugal, achieving significant economic and social development. However, from the 6th century BC, it declined. By the 3rd century BC, two distinct areas emerged:
- Celtiberian Area (North, Center, and West): Indigenous peoples merged with Celtic invaders. Northern tribes (Astures, Basques, Cantabrians, and Galicians) were less developed than those in the center and west (Vettones, Lusitanians, Arevaci, Vaccaei, Pelendones). Their economy was based on agriculture and livestock, with social structures rooted in kinship.
- Iberian Area (South and East): Heavily influenced by colonizers, this area (Layetana, Lacetani, Edetana, Oretanos, Bastetano, Turdetans) developed a vibrant economy, used currency, and had a complex, state-like political organization. Their language remains undeciphered.
The Phoenicians and Greeks, attracted by the Iberian Peninsula’s mineral wealth, established colonies for trade, particularly with Tartessos. The Phoenicians founded trading posts in the southern Mediterranean, including Malaka and Sexi. The Greeks, starting with Massilia (Marseilles), established colonies along the eastern coast. Their influence is evident in Iberian art and language.
From the 4th century BC, Carthage replaced the Phoenicians, establishing factories and strategic enclaves like Ebusus (Ibiza). While Carthaginian influence is visible in Iberian culture, their military occupation of the south and southeast led to conflict with Rome.
The Roman Legacy
The Roman conquest intensified Romanization—the assimilation of Roman culture and lifestyle by conquered peoples. This uneven process involved urban development, Roman settlement, military presence, and granting of Roman citizenship. Romanization left a significant cultural legacy. Latin displaced vernacular languages, facilitating Hispanic contributions to Latin literature with authors like Seneca and Lucan. Roman law, which regulated relations between citizens and the state, was adopted and influenced modern law. Roman religious cults were introduced, coexisting with indigenous beliefs. In 380 AD, Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity the official religion, leading to the reorganization of the Hispanic Church. By the late 4th century, a substantial portion of Hispanic society was Christian. Roman influence is also evident in architecture and civil engineering.
The Visigothic Kingdom
In 409 AD, three Germanic tribes entered the Iberian Peninsula: the Suebi (who established a kingdom in Galicia and northern Portugal until 585), the Vandals (who migrated to North Africa), and the Alans. Rome allied with the Visigoths, granting them land in southern France and Iberia in exchange for expelling these invaders. Defeated by the Franks in 507, the Visigoths settled in the peninsula, establishing their capital in Toledo. Visigothic kings relied on two institutions: the Aula Regia (a consultative body of nobles) and the Officium Palatinum (trusted nobles managing central government). Land was administered by comes and duces. Following the Third Council of Toledo in 589, the Catholic Church supported the monarchy, ratifying royal decisions in councils. The Visigothic period saw ruralization, feudalization, and the growth of landlordism, while Romanization continued. King Recceswinth’s Liber Iudiciorum (654) codified Roman law. St. Isidore of Seville, a prominent literary figure, influenced medieval political thought with his theories on the divine origin of royal power. His Etymologies, an encyclopedia of contemporary knowledge, was preserved and disseminated by monasteries. A succession dispute paved the way for the Muslim arrival and the end of the Visigothic monarchy.