Human Settlements: An Overview
Human Settlements and Their Forms
Human settlements take various forms in space. There are two main types: rural and urban settlements.
Rural Settlements
Rural settlements encompass small-scale human communities, including villages and towns. These settlements are characterized by the dominance of primary sector activities.
Urban Settlements
Urban settlements consist of larger communities, namely cities. The population in urban areas is primarily employed in the secondary and tertiary sectors.
Rural Settlements: Influencing Factors and Types
Several factors influence the development of rural settlements. These factors can be categorized as:
- Physical Factors: Relief features, the presence of water sources, and soil fertility play a crucial role.
- Human Factors: Historical circumstances and methods of utilizing rural resources also contribute.
There are two primary types of rural settlements:
- Dispersed Settlement: In this type, houses are scattered amidst farmlands, grasslands, or forests, separated from one another.
- Concentrated Settlement: Here, houses are separated from farmland and situated close to each other, forming villages or towns. These settlements can be further classified as:
- Linear: Houses are arranged along a path, such as a river or a road.
- Clustered: Houses are grouped around a central nucleus.
In both linear and clustered settlements, the layout can be regular or irregular.
Urban Settlements: The Concept of a City
Urban settlements are primarily composed of cities. The concept of a city is multifaceted and arises from a combination of criteria:
- Quantitative or Statistical Criteria: These criteria define a city based on exceeding a specific population threshold.
- Qualitative Criteria: These criteria consider settlements as cities if they exhibit certain characteristics, including:
- High population density and building construction
- Abundance and height of collective housing
- Predominance of industrial and service-based economic activities
Pre-Industrial Cities
The earliest cities emerged in Mesopotamia approximately 7,500 years ago, along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Shortly after, other cities arose along the Nile River and adopted an Indo urban plan. Almost all of these early cities had irregular layouts and were organized around major temples and palaces.
During classical antiquity, in the first millennium BC, cities spread throughout the Mediterranean region through Greek colonization and the Roman Empire. The Greeks and Romans established new cities with regular grid-like plans and incorporated significant public buildings and spaces.
The decline of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century AD led to the decline of European cities.
In the Middle Ages, starting from the 11th century, European cities experienced a revival under Christian influence, driven by flourishing trade. Muslim cities also achieved remarkable development during this period. Both Christian and Muslim cities were typically enclosed by walls, had generally irregular layouts, and featured religious buildings alongside areas dedicated to crafts and commercial activities.
During the modern era, in the 15th and 16th centuries, geographical discoveries led to the expansion of urbanization in Africa and the Americas. In the 17th century, absolutist monarchs, seeking to display their power, embellished cities, particularly their capitals, by constructing wide streets, squares, and gardens. In the 18th century, monarchies focused on improving urban sanitation through sewerage systems and paving, and also built numerous public buildings.
The Industrial City
The introduction of modern industry spurred rapid urban growth. Cities attracted a large influx of rural population, leading to the demolition of old city walls and urban expansion.
New urban spaces emerged, including:
- Bourgeois Neighborhoods: Well-planned areas with spacious homes and access to quality urban services.
- Working-Class Neighborhoods: Unorganized areas with small dwellings made of poor materials and lacking public services.
The urban landscape transformed with the introduction of factories, railways, trams, and later, gas and electric street lighting.
The Contemporary City
In developed countries of Europe and North America, urban growth surged from the late 18th century until the crisis of 1975. This growth was fueled by rural migration, driven by the development of industry and services in cities.
In underdeveloped countries of Latin America, Asia, and Africa, urban growth commenced in the early to mid-20th century. However, it has since gained momentum, leading to what is often termed an “urban explosion.” This rapid growth is primarily attributed to rural exodus, driven by poverty and high rural population growth rates.
Urban Morphology
Urban morphology refers to the physical form and structure of a city. It is shaped by a combination of factors:
- Location and Situation:
- Site: The specific area where the city is situated.
- Situation: The city’s position relative to its surrounding geographical area.
- Plan: The layout of the city, including built-up areas and open spaces.