How We Learn Language: Key Theories of Acquisition
Major Theories of Language Acquisition
Universal Grammar
Universal Grammar is a linguistic theory, usually credited to Noam Chomsky, suggesting that all possible natural human languages share certain properties. The theory proposes that some rules of grammar are hard-wired into the brain and manifest without being taught.
Acquisition Through Imitation
The role of imitation in language acquisition is examined through data from psycholinguistic, operant, and social learning areas. From the psycholinguistic data, four empirical statements have been extracted:
- There is no evidence that spontaneous imitations of adult speech influence grammatical development.
- Imitation of speech does not appear to occur with frequency beyond the age of 3.
- Speech, and hence imitation, are not necessary for the comprehension of linguistic structures.
- Most of a child’s utterances are novel and therefore could not have been exactly modeled.
The first and second propositions are seen to be based on an overly restrictive definition of imitation—immediate and exact copying. Selective imitation, a functional relationship involving the similarity of a particular form or function of the model’s responses, is proposed as an alternative, thus leaving the validity of statements (1) and (2) in question. Concerning assertion (4), certain data from the operant literature are presented as evidence of the compatibility of novel responding with modeling, imitation, and reinforcement. Finally, it is proposed that statement (3) suggests a mechanism by which selective imitation can be understood. A three-stage process is proposed in which comprehension of a grammatical form sets the stage for selective imitation of that structure, which in turn leads to spontaneous production. Thus, imitation is a process by which new syntactic structures can be first introduced into the productive mode.
Acquisition Through Correction and Reinforcement
Another proposal, in the behaviorist tradition, is that children learn to produce correct (grammatical) sentences because they are positively reinforced when they say something grammatical and negatively reinforced (corrected) when they say something ungrammatical. However, this seldom happens, and when it does, it is usually for mispronunciations or incorrect reporting of facts, not for bad grammar.
Acquisition Through Analogy
It is suggested that children put words together to form phrases and sentences by analogy, by hearing a sentence and using it as a model to form other sentences. For example, after hearing, “I have a red car,” a child might form a new sentence like, “I have a red ball,” using the same basis. This way, children are less likely to make grammatical mistakes, with errors occurring more at the phonetic or phonological level.
Connectionism
Connectionism, also known as parallel distributed processing (PDP) or artificial neural networks, has been an important theoretical framework and a computational tool for studying the mind and behavior. It adopts the perspective that human cognition is an emergent property resulting from the interaction of many interconnected processing units (neurons) operating simultaneously in a network (hence “parallel”). In addition, connectionism advocates that learning, representation, and processing of information are dynamic and distributed across the network.
Language, as a hallmark of human behavior, has received in-depth treatment since the beginning of connectionist research. The acquisition of morphosyntax, speech recognition, and sentence processing are among the earliest connectionist models. The application of connectionism to second language acquisition also gathered momentum in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Learning a language entails complex cognitive and linguistic constraints and interactions, and connectionist models provide insights into how these constraints and interactions may be realized in the natural learning context.
Mimicking Behavior: The Ta-Ta Theory
The Ta-Ta theory, proposed by Sir Richard Paget and influenced by Darwin, suggests that body movement preceded language. Language began as an unconscious vocal imitation of these movements—like the way a child’s mouth moves when using scissors or how a person’s tongue might stick out when concentrating on playing the guitar. This evolved into the popular idea that language may have derived from gestures.