Hominization and Islamic Iberia

Posted on Oct 21, 2024 in History

Hominization in the Iberian Peninsula

The earliest human remains, dating back 800,000 years, were discovered in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos), Gran Dolina (1996). These remains exhibit unique characteristics, distinguishing them from other European fossils, leading to their classification as a new Homo ancestor species. Other findings in Atapuerca’s Sima de los Huesos (1974), approximately 300,000 years old, belong to pre-Neanderthal populations related to Homo heidelbergensis, likely of African origin.

The two last Homo species to appear are Homo neanderthalensis (95,000 years ago) and Homo sapiens (35,000 years ago).

Pre-Roman Peoples

  • Celts (1100 BC): Of Indo-European origin, their economy was based on agriculture and livestock. They introduced iron metallurgy.
  • Iberians (9th Century BC): Influenced by Phoenicians and Greeks.
  • Tartessos (9th Century BC): Known for their advanced metalworking, influenced by Greek culture.
  • Phoenicians (9th Century BC) and Greeks (7th Century BC): Established on the southern and eastern coasts, they influenced indigenous cultures, introducing the potter’s wheel, fish salting, alphabetical writing, currency, and pottery. They founded commercial cities like Gadir and Emporion.
  • Carthaginians (7th Century BC): Replaced the Phoenicians and competed with the Greeks for Mediterranean trade dominance.

Roman Conquest and Romanization

The conquest of Hispania, spanning nearly 200 years, unfolded in four stages:

  1. 218-170 BC: Rome dominated the south and east coast.
  2. 154-133 BC: Conquest of the plateau, facing resistance from Lusitanians and Celtiberians.
  3. 123-121 BC: Expansion and conquest of the Balearic Islands.
  4. 29-19 BC: Subjugation of Cantabrians and Asturians.

Romanization of Hispania followed through various means:

  • Integration of locals into the Roman army.
  • Establishment of cities administered by Roman officials.
  • Adoption of Latin as the common language.
  • Imperial cult promoting loyalty and unity.
  • Construction of public works (roads, bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, circuses).

Barbarian Invasions and the Visigothic Kingdom

Swabians, Alans, and Vandals arrived in 409. The Visigoths, arriving in 415, cornered the Swabians in Galicia, defeated the Alans, and forced the Vandals into Africa. They then settled in Gaul (Kingdom of Toulouse). Defeated by the Franks in 507, they moved to the peninsula and established the Kingdom of Toledo.

The Visigothic monarchy, with near-absolute power, was elective, not hereditary. The king ruled with the Aula Regia (council of nobles) and the Councils of Toledo (religious assemblies).

Culture declined with the cities. Art emphasized metalwork inlaid with precious stones, glass, and enamels.

Islamic Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba

Power struggles within the Visigothic monarchy facilitated the 711 Muslim invasion. Within three years, they conquered almost the entire peninsula, excluding the Cantabrian and Pyrenean mountains.

From 711-759, al-Andalus was a province of the Umayyad Caliphate. After the Abbasid overthrow, Abd al-Rahman I escaped and proclaimed himself Emir of Cordoba in 756, politically independent but religiously subordinate to Baghdad. The Emirate consolidated Muslim rule, but internal conflicts and power struggles persisted.

In 929, Abd al-Rahman III declared full independence, becoming Caliph. The Caliphate marked the peak of Islamic splendor in the peninsula.

Taifa Kingdoms and North African Empires

Tensions between Arab and Berber leaders led to the Caliphate’s decline after Almanzor’s death (1002) and its disintegration in 1031. The Caliphate fragmented into small, warring Taifa kingdoms, often allying with northern Christian kingdoms, who exploited them economically through parias (tribute payments).

Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization

Muslims advanced agriculture through irrigation and introduced eastern crops (rice, cotton, citrus, saffron). Livestock farming focused on sheep, horses, and silkworms. Craftsmanship excelled in ceramics, paper, glass, ivory, leather, and metalwork. Trade flourished internally and externally, with both Islamic and Christian countries.

Society was stratified:

  • Aristocracy (jamma): Caliph’s family and Arab conquerors held high positions and vast estates.
  • Service Nobility: Held administrative positions.
  • General Population (mea): Farmers, artisans, merchants.
  • Slaves: Acquired through trade or war.

Al-Andalus: Cultural Legacy

Al-Andalus played a crucial role in transmitting Greek culture to Christian Europe. Cordoba, with its vast library, became a center of learning during the Caliphate.

Arabic became the language of literature, history, theology, and philosophy. Notable figures include Ibn Khaldun, Avempace (who adopted Aristotelian philosophy), Abulcasim Maslama (astronomer), and Abulcasis (renowned surgeon).