History of the Iberian Peninsula: Roman to Al-Andalus
Roman Conquest of Iberia
The Roman intervention in the Peninsula began in the wake of the Second Punic War, pitting Romans against Carthaginians. Roman troops secured alliances with Iberian tribes, and their victory over the Carthaginians marked the start of the conquest.
Stages of Roman Conquest
- Stage 1: Rome quickly gained control of the Iberian area, the Mediterranean coast, and the Andalusian coast, largely through agreements and treaties with indigenous peoples.
- Stage 2: Rome conquered the plateau and western regions. This stage faced strong resistance from Celtic peoples.
- Stage 3: The final stage involved occupying the Cantabrian area and Galicia. To prevent frequent raids by local tribes, permanent camps were established, which later developed into cities such as León.
Romanization Process
Romanization was the process of imposing the Roman socioeconomic and cultural model on the residents of the peninsula. It occurred through economic integration into the Roman trading system, political integration, and the diffusion of Roman culture.
Barbarian Invasions
The arrival of Germanic peoples occurred in the context of the generalized crisis affecting the Roman Empire. Its manifestations included:
- Crisis of slavery, crafts, trade, and cities
- Progressive ruralization of the empire
- Increasing financial difficulties
- Constant military uprisings and civil wars
- Pressure from barbarian groups at the frontiers and frequent looting campaigns
The empire decided to make agreements with some Germanic tribes or federations. These groups undertook to defend the empire’s borders from attacks by other nations in exchange for being allowed to settle within the empire.
Al-Andalus: Muslim Rule in the Middle Ages
Muslim Conquest (711)
In 711, the Visigothic king was defeated at the Battle of Guadalete. Within three years, Muslim forces reached the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees. This rapid conquest is explained by the Islamic expansionary impetus, the weakness of the Visigothic monarchy, and capitulation pacts signed by Hispano-Romans that allowed the conquerors to dominate the territory with ease.
Dependent Emirate (711-756)
With the conquest completed, the peninsula became an emirate (province) under a governor (emir) subordinate to the Caliph of Damascus. There were uprisings, particularly among minority Muslim groups. Arab Muslims formed the aristocracy, while Berbers were often assigned less fertile land in the interior. In 741, a major uprising of Berbers occurred, after which many Berbers were driven back to North Africa.
Independent Emirate (756-929)
In 750, a revolt by the Abbasid family ended the Umayyad Caliphate in the East. However, Abd al-Rahman I fled and successfully took refuge in Al-Andalus, proclaiming his political independence. The process of Islamization accelerated, reflected in an increase in conversions among Hispano-Romans (Muladis) and a generalized Arabization of customs that affected even Christians (Mozarabs). Internal conflicts were severe, such as the revolt of the Muladis in the suburbs of Córdoba.
Caliphate of Cordoba (929-1031)
Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph (religious leader), breaking all dependence of Al-Andalus on the rest of the Islamic world. He undertook reforms of the state structure, achieving economic, political, and cultural prosperity. This era included significant looting campaigns against Christian kingdoms (known as raids), particularly under Al-Mansur.
Crisis of the 11th Century: Taifa Kingdoms & Empires
Following the death of Al-Mansur, internal fighting caused the disintegration of Al-Andalus into about 20 small kingdoms (the Taifa kingdoms). These were governed by local Andalusian families (Arabs or Muladis), families of former slaves, or Berbers (e.g., Taifas in Granada or Málaga). This stage reflects the weakening of Islamic power in the peninsula.
The conquest of the Kingdom of Toledo by Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085 forced the Taifa rulers to seek help from the Almoravids, who had created a major empire in North Africa. The Almoravids stopped the Christian advance and incorporated Al-Andalus into their empire. Their religious intolerance and imposition of special taxes caused strong dissatisfaction and led to a further disintegration into second Taifa kingdoms (starting around 1145).
Christian pressure then forced the Muslim rulers to seek help from the Almohads. The Almohad defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) allowed the Christian kingdoms to conquer almost all the Guadalquivir valley, reducing Muslim dominance to the Kingdom of Granada.
Kingdom of Granada
This Muslim kingdom maintained its independence until the late 15th century through skillful diplomacy and its economic potential, reinforced by the arrival of Muslims from other conquered Andalusian kingdoms.