History of the Iberian Peninsula: From Early Humans to the Reconquista
The Hominization Process in the Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited by humans for over 800,000 years. Early hominid species like Homo antecessor and Homo heidelbergensis were present in the region, followed by Neanderthals around 80,000 years ago. Our direct ancestors, Homo sapiens sapiens, arrived around 40,000 years ago, leaving behind remarkable cave paintings like those found in Altamira.
Pre-Roman Towns
By the 1st millennium BC, the Iberian Peninsula was home to various groups, including Iberians, Celts, Celtiberians, and Tartessians. These groups developed distinct cultures and societies. The Iberians, located in the south and east, were known for their independent city-states and votive offerings. The Celts, inhabiting the north and west, were skilled warriors and metalworkers, living in fortified settlements called castros. The Tartessians, influenced by Phoenicians and Greeks, flourished in the Guadalquivir valley between 700 and 500 BC.
Phoenician, Greek, and Carthaginian Influences
The Iberian Peninsula also saw the arrival of colonizing forces. The Phoenicians established trading posts like Gadir (Cádiz), Malaka (Málaga), and Sexi (Almuñécar), introducing their alphabet, urban planning, religion, and commercial practices. The Greeks founded colonies like Emporion (Empúries) and Rhode (Roses), contributing to sculpture, coinage, ceramics, and the cultivation of vines and olives. The Carthaginians, descendants of Phoenician colonists, dominated the southern coast after defeating the Tartessians and clashed with the Romans for control of the peninsula in the Punic Wars.
The Barbarian Invasions and the Visigothic Kingdom
In the 5th century AD, Germanic tribes, including Vandals, Swabians, and Alans, invaded the Iberian Peninsula. The Visigoths, initially allied with the Romans, eventually established their own kingdom after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD. King Leovigild (573-586) unified the territory, while King Reccared (586-601) converted to Christianity and promoted religious unity. The Visigothic Code (654) established legal equality between Visigoths and Hispano-Romans.
Visigothic Institutions
The Visigothic kingdom was characterized by an elective monarchy, a consultative assembly called the Aula Regia, provincial governors known as dukes, and local administrators. Saint Isidore of Seville, a prominent scholar of the 7th century, compiled a vast encyclopedia of knowledge called the Etymologies.
Political Evolution: Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Córdoba
The expansion of Islam and internal conflicts within the Visigothic kingdom led to the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula in 711 AD. The Battle of Guadalete marked a turning point, resulting in the rapid Muslim advance and the establishment of Al-Andalus. Initially, Al-Andalus was a province of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus. However, in 756 AD, Abd al-Rahman I, a survivor of the Umayyad dynasty, declared an independent Emirate of Córdoba, which later transformed into the powerful Caliphate of Córdoba under Abd al-Rahman III in 929 AD. This period witnessed a flourishing of culture, trade, and intellectual pursuits. However, after the death of Almanzor in 1002 AD, the Caliphate fragmented into numerous small kingdoms known as Taifas.
Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization
Agriculture formed the backbone of the economy in Al-Andalus, with Muslims introducing advanced irrigation systems and new crops like rice, sugar, saffron, and cotton. Cities thrived as centers of trade, industry, and craftsmanship. The population was divided into Muslims and non-Muslims. Muslims were further categorized into Arabs, Berbers, and converts, while non-Muslims included Jews and Mozarabs (Christians living under Muslim rule).
The Cultural Legacy of Medieval Iberia
Muslim Spain played a crucial role in transmitting knowledge and culture to the West. It served as a bridge between the Islamic world and Europe, fostering advancements in literature, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, music, and law. Córdoba became a renowned center of learning, with figures like Averroes making significant contributions to philosophy and Abulcasis and Maimonides excelling in medicine. The architectural marvels of the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Medina Azahara palace exemplify the artistic achievements of the era.
The First Nuclei of Resistance and the Christian Kingdoms
Despite Muslim dominance, several pockets of Christian resistance persisted in the northern regions of the Iberian Peninsula. The Kingdom of Asturias, led by King Pelayo, emerged as a symbol of defiance after the Battle of Covadonga in 722 AD. Over time, other Christian kingdoms arose, including León, Castile, Portugal, Navarre, and Aragon. These kingdoms gradually expanded their territories through a process known as the Reconquista.
Main Stages of the Reconquista
The Reconquista, spanning from 722 to 1492, was a long and complex process marked by shifting alliances and territorial gains and losses. Key stages include:
- 8th-10th centuries: The Asturian kingdom established its borders along the Duero River.
- 11th-12th centuries: Castile and León expanded southward, capturing Toledo in 1085 and Zaragoza in 1118. The arrival of the Almoravids temporarily halted Christian advances.
- 13th century: Castile and León gained control of the Guadalquivir valley and Sierra Morena. The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) marked a decisive victory for the Christian forces. Ferdinand III of Castile conquered Córdoba and Seville, while Jaime I of Aragon captured the Balearic Islands and Valencia.
- 14th-15th centuries: Christian kingdoms continued their southward push, culminating in the fall of Granada in 1492, the last Muslim stronghold on the Iberian Peninsula.
The Reconquista shaped the political and cultural landscape of the Iberian Peninsula, leaving a lasting legacy on the region’s history.