History of Islamic Spain and Early Christian States
The Muslim Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
In 711, a small group of Arabs and Berbers crossed the Strait of Gibraltar under the command of Tariq. Their intention was to loot and plunder. Having easily defeated the Visigothic King Rodrigo at the Guadalete in 711, they continued their advance.
The Peninsula offered little resistance and was quickly occupied. The causes were Muslim military superiority, internal conflicts of the Visigoths, and support offered to the invaders by Jews and Visigothic nobles.
In the northern mountainous region, where certain groups of Christian resistance emerged, Muslims were defeated by the Asturians in the Battle of Covadonga (722). They called the conquered region Al-Andalus.
Political Evolution of Al-Andalus
The Independent Emirate (756-929)
In 755, Abd al-Rahman I reached the Peninsula, fleeing from the dethronement and assassination of his family by the Abbasids. Defeating the Emir of Al-Andalus, he proclaimed himself the independent Emir in 756. During this time, Al-Andalus suffered internal conflicts.
The Caliphate of Córdoba and the Taifas (929-1031)
In the year 929, Abd al-Rahman III broke away from religious dependence on Baghdad and proclaimed himself Caliph. This marked a period of great political and cultural splendor in Al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman reorganized the army, ended internal revolts, and conducted punitive expeditions against the Peninsular Christian kingdoms. In this period, Córdoba became the most important city in the West.
The Caliphate officially endured until 1031. The governors of the different provinces declared themselves independent, forming 28 small Taifas which subsisted until 1086.
Government, Administration, and Economy of Al-Andalus
Government and Administration in Al-Andalus
The government and administration were held by the Emirs and Caliphs, who directed the administration, politics, army, and justice. Caliphs also held religious power. The territory was organized into provinces, or coras. Each cora had a capital and its surrounding territory, with one governor and a judge.
Economy of Al-Andalus
The basis of the economy was agriculture, which included traditional Mediterranean products like wine and cereals in dry lands. Wetlands were used for crops such as sugar cane, rice, oranges, and lemons.
Muslims extended irrigation with the creation of canals, reservoirs, and waterwheels.
The primary sector was complemented by livestock farming, focused on breeding sheep, horses, and silkworms, as well as fishing. Mining exploited metals such as iron, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, and tin. Salt mines were also important.
The main economic activities of the cities were trade and crafts. Crafts produced cotton, linen, and silk textiles, ceramics, and glass objects. Papyrus, paper, and parchment were also made.
Minting gold and silver coins favored trade. Domestic trade was boosted by the strategic location. Al-Andalusi merchants sold food products, raw materials, and goods manufactured in cities. They also imported luxury goods such as spices, gold, ivory, and slaves.
Society and Culture in Al-Andalus
Al-Andalusi society was composed of different ethnic groups.
Social Structure: The Aristocracy (Jassa)
The aristocracy, or Jassa, was a small group formed by the Caliph’s family members and the Arab conquerors. They held high positions and possessed extensive properties.
Social Structure: The Common People (Amma)
The mass of the population, or Amma, made up the rest of society and included peasants and city dwellers. They consisted mostly of the old Hispanic population from the Visigothic period, who in certain cases maintained their Christian religion and customs and were called the Mozarabs. In addition, there were minority groups such as the Berber conquerors from North Africa, the Jews, and the slaves.
Daily Life and Entertainment
Key festivities included those celebrating the end of fasting during Ramadan and the Feast of the Sacrifice at the end of the pilgrimage. Chess and backgammon, which originated in Persia, were played for entertainment.
Clothing and Attire
Men covered their legs with baggy trousers and women with cloth bands. Both sexes wore tunics. On their feet, they wore sandals, slippers, canvas shoes, ankle boots, and high boots. Men wore turbans, and women wore headdresses and scarves to cover their faces when they left their homes.
Education in Al-Andalus
Basic education was provided in Koranic schools, where children learned to read and write, recite the Koran, and acquired certain notions of mathematics and grammar.
Higher education was provided by the Madrasas or universities, access to which was much more restricted. Students studied the Koran and subjects such as history, philology, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy.
Cultural and Artistic Splendor of Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus received and spread classical Greek knowledge from the eastern part of the Muslim Empire throughout Christian Europe. It also became an important cultural center during the Caliphate and reached its greatest splendor under Abd al-Rahman III and Al-Hakam II.
Notable Scholars and Contributions
- Ibn Hazm: Literature
- Maslama al-Majriti: Science
- Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi: Medical Treatises
Architectural Masterpieces
The most important artistic manifestations of the Caliphate were the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Medina Azahara Palace.
The Great Mosque of Córdoba
The Mosque of Córdoba was extended as the city’s population grew. The first building was constructed by Abd al-Rahman I in 785.
The prayer hall consisted of several naves, separated by double arches made up of a lower horseshoe arch and a higher semicircular arch. A lintelled ceiling rests on the arches. Notable features include the double-walled qibla, ribbed vaults and windows, and the mihrab with rich mosaic decoration.
The minaret is situated in the courtyard and serves to call the faithful to prayer. There is also a fountain for purification before entering to pray.
Medina Azahara Palace-City
The city-palace of Medina Azahara was built in the 10th century by Abd al-Rahman III on the outskirts of Córdoba.
It was surrounded by a wall and organized into three terraces. The residence of the Caliph was located on the topmost terrace. The second terrace was the official area, and the third held the city and homes of the citizens and craftsmen.
The Christian Kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula
After the Muslim conquest, Christian resistance groups formed in the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees.
Kingdom of Asturias and León
The Kingdom of Asturias was established at the beginning of the 8th century in the Cantabrian Mountains, following the Battle of Covadonga (722). Pelayo’s successors established their capital in Oviedo (808). In 914, Ordoño II moved the capital to León, creating the Kingdom of León. It had to deal with Muslim attacks and the desire for independence on the part of the County of Castilla, which in 1030 joined the Kingdom of Pamplona. Fernando I later inherited the County of Castilla and turned it into an independent kingdom (1035).
Kingdoms of Pamplona, Aragón, and Catalonia
The Kingdom of Pamplona
The Kingdom of Pamplona emerged in the Western Pyrenees, notably after Roncesvalles (778), and began its expansion through La Rioja. The kingdom reached its peak at the beginning of the 11th century during the reign of Sancho III the Great.
The Kingdom of Aragón
The Aragonese group, located in the Central Pyrenees, became part of the Kingdom of Pamplona (940). Ramiro I inherited the county and turned it into an independent kingdom.
The Catalan Counties
The Catalan Counties originated in the Eastern Pyrenees. The Franks turned this region into the Spanish March, which was divided into several counties. Wilfred the Hairy united these counties (878). At the end of the 10th century (988), they gained independence from the Franks.
Society, Economy, and Art in Christian Kingdoms
The territory conquered from the Muslims was initially scarce and consisted basically of the Duero River basin.
Resettlement and Administration
Resettlement consisted of installing a new population and cultivating the land taken from the Muslims (Presura/Aprisio).
Administration of the territory was organized into districts surrounding castles.
Economy of the Christian Kingdoms
Agricultural activities formed the basis of the economy. Crafts and trade were very scarce and concentrated in the few existing cities. Early in the 11th century, the three most important cities of the Christian Peninsular territory were Santiago, León, and Barcelona.
Society in Christian Kingdoms
Society was made up of numerous free peasants, who owned the land they worked.
Social Hierarchy
- Powerful Men: Nobility
- Abbots: Monasteries
Pre-Romanesque Art
Pre-Romanesque art includes Christian artistic manifestations prior to the arrival of Romanesque styles to the Peninsula. These manifestations are called Asturian Art and Mozarabic Art.
Asturian Art
It developed between the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 10th centuries in the Kingdom of Asturias.
Mozarabic Art
It developed in the 10th century in the Duero Valley, repopulated by Christians who fled from Al-Andalus.
The Camino de Santiago
In 813, a hermit discovered a tomb in Galicia which was identified as that of the Apostle St. James.
The route was also called the Camino Francés or Jacobean Route, and was made up of four branches that started in France.
The Camino de Santiago was much more than a religious route. Over time, the pilgrimage favored the development of crafts and trade to meet the needs of the pilgrims.
Romanesque Art in the Iberian Peninsula
Romanesque art was introduced to the Peninsula from the northern side of the Pyrenees.
Romanesque Schools: The Catalan School
Catalan Romanesque corresponds to the first Romanesque style of the end of the 10th century, characterized by Lombard architecture. The most prominent examples are San Clemente de Taüll and Santa María de Taüll.
Romanesque Schools: The Castilian-Aragonese School
This school is characterized by the use of regular stones, vaults supported by transverse arches, and the full incorporation of sculpture. The most representative buildings were the Cathedral of Jaca and the Monastery of Santa María de Sangüesa. The construction of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral began in 1075.
Romanesque Sculpture and Painting
Romanesque sculpture was mainly concentrated in the capitals and the facades of churches. Mural painting was used to decorate the inside of the churches, and some of the most outstanding examples are the apses of San Clemente de Taüll and the Royal Pantheon of San Isidoro.