History of International Relations: Westphalia to Bretton Woods
1. What Are International Relations?
Defining International Relations
IR as a field of study is concerned with the interactions between states and other actors in the international system. It includes not only governments but also international organizations, NGOs, and multinational corporations. Because it draws from history, law, politics, economics, and philosophy, IR is inherently interdisciplinary and can be both theoretical and practical.
Key Perspectives
- Kaufman’s perspective views IR as decisions taken inside states that affect the world outside their borders, raising questions about who makes these decisions, why, and with what effects.
- Sorensen et al. define IR more broadly as the study of relationships between countries and non-state actors, emphasizing both scholarly and policy-oriented approaches.
- Devetak stresses that IR is about external relations among nations and peoples, and highlights that the discipline is an interdisciplinary inquiry.
Why Definitions Matter
Definitions shape the discipline. As Brown explains, how we define IR has real consequences for the scope of the field and the questions we ask. Since IR has no fixed “essential” existence, our definitions are interpretive choices that affect scholarship and practice.
Domestic vs. International: The Great Divide
Kenneth Waltz’s distinction emphasized that domestic politics operates under hierarchy (with authority, law, and peace as norms), while international politics exists in anarchy, meaning no higher authority exists above states. In such a self-help system, insecurity and the possibility of war are constant.
2. Rise of the Sovereign State
The World Before 1500
In 1500, the world was fragmented into empires, dynastic states, duchies, and city-states. Regions were largely self-contained, with only limited contacts (often trade) between them. There was no integrated global system of states.
Formation of the International Political System (1500–1815)
The European state system emerged unintentionally. Leaders like Charles V, Philip II, Louis XIV, and Napoleon tried to establish continental empires but were consistently blocked by coalitions of rivals. These failures entrenched a system of independent, competing states, which became the foundation of modern IR.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
The Thirty Years’ War ended with treaties that recognized the sovereignty of states. Each state became a “free agent,” able to set its own religion and alliances.
The peace introduced two key principles:
- “Rex est imperator in regno suo” (rulers are supreme within their own territories).
- “Cuius regio, eius religio” (rulers decide the religion of their territories).
Together, they created the Westphalian system that remains central to IR today.
Imperial Ambitions of Europe (1500–1815)
Alongside the rise of sovereignty, European imperial expansion transformed the globe. Portugal, Spain, the Netherlands, France, and Britain established colonies for wealth, trade, and status.
- Portugal reached Brazil and Asia.
- Spain conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires.
- The Dutch dominated East Indies trade.
- France and Britain built empires in the Americas and India, with Britain emerging as the preeminent power by the 18th century.
Colonialism and Its Effects
Colonial rule exploited and transformed societies. Colonies were governed by foreigners, cultures were suppressed, and resources extracted. Indigenous populations often became “strangers in their own land.”
The Atlantic slave trade, or “Rum Triangle,” epitomized colonial brutality, commodifying millions of human beings.
The long-term effects of colonialism include economic dependency, cultural disruption, and uneven development, which continue to shape IR today.
3. The Concert of Europe
The Birth of the Concert System (1815–1818)
After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna created the Concert of Europe, led by Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain. France was reintegrated by 1818. The goal was to preserve stability and prevent another European war.
Core Principles of the Concert
The Concert rested on three ideas:
- Balance of power.
- Territorial integrity (to protect the Vienna settlement).
- Conservative order.
How the Concert Operated
The Concert functioned as an informal system of regular consultations. It was not treaty-based but relied on diplomacy. The great powers coordinated interventions, such as in Spain (1820) and Italy (1822), and managed tensions diplomatically to pre-empt wars.
Decline and Fall of the Concert
Revolutions and nationalism weakened the conservative consensus. The Crimean War showed how conflicting interests destroyed unity. The Concert was absent during the 1848 revolutions and the unifications of Germany and Italy. By the early 20th century, it had faded into irrelevance, failing to prevent WWI.
Continuous Imperial Ambitions
While the Concert managed Europe, imperial expansion abroad continued. Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, and later the U.S. and Japan built colonial empires in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
Colonialism was justified through racial superiority and the “White Man’s Burden,” though its legacies were often destructive. Historians like Niall Ferguson argue for “civilizing effects,” but the violence and exploitation remain central to its history.
Global Context: China, the Ottomans, and Japan
- China declined after the Opium Wars, opening to foreign concessions and semicolonial status.
- The Ottoman Empire lost territories to Russia and was dubbed the “Sick Man of Europe.”
- Japan avoided colonization by modernizing during the Meiji Restoration, later becoming an imperial power itself, defeating China (1895) and Russia (1905).
Significance
The Concert showed that great-power cooperation could maintain order. Though it failed, it planted the idea of collective security, later influencing the League of Nations and the United Nations.
4. The Interwar Period and the League of Nations
Causes of the First World War
- Alliance systems (Triple Alliance vs. Triple Entente) fostered suspicion and rigidity.
- Misperceptions about quick, profitable wars encouraged escalation.
- A Balkan crisis spiraled into global conflict when leaders failed to contain it.
The Aftermath of the War
The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed harsh conditions on Germany and dismantled the German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires. New states emerged in Eastern Europe and the Balkans, while Britain and France took control of Ottoman territories under mandates.
The League of Nations
The League was the first experiment in institutionalized collective security. Its aim was to prevent future wars by providing legal and institutional frameworks for dispute resolution. Membership peaked at 63 states.
Its structure included the Assembly (all states), Council (great powers + rotating members), Secretariat, and the Permanent Court of International Justice.
Shortcomings of the League
The League failed to stop aggression (Japan in Manchuria 1931, Italy in Ethiopia 1935). Britain and France prioritized their own interests and were unwilling to impose strong sanctions. Its ideals clashed with political realities, as it lacked independent enforcement mechanisms.
Colonial Nature: The Mandate System
Through the mandate system, the League oversaw territories taken from Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Though presented as preparation for independence, this often disguised continued imperial rule.
Agreements such as Sykes–Picot (1916) and the Balfour Declaration (1917) highlight how great-power interests shaped these mandates, particularly in the Middle East.
Disintegration of the League
The United States never joined. Japan, Germany, and Italy withdrew, while the USSR was expelled in 1939. By then, the League was powerless and unable to prevent WWII.
5. The Bretton Woods System
Origins in Interwar Failures
The interwar economic crisis—with protectionism, devaluations, and the Great Depression—deepened instability and fueled fascism. Policymakers after WWII sought to avoid repeating these mistakes.
The Bretton Woods Conference (1944)
In New Hampshire, 44 Allied nations gathered to design a stable economic order. John Maynard Keynes proposed a balanced system with a new global reserve currency, while Harry Dexter White argued for a dollar-centered system. U.S. dominance ensured White’s plan prevailed.
The Three Pillars of the New Order
The Bretton Woods system established three key institutions:
- World Bank (IBRD): Long-term loans for reconstruction and development.
- IMF (International Monetary Fund): Fixed but adjustable exchange rates, financial stability, and short-term assistance.
- GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, 1947): A forum to reduce tariffs and promote free trade.
The Gold-Dollar Standard
The U.S. dollar, pegged to gold at $35/oz, became the anchor of the system, with other currencies pegged to the dollar. This created stability for trade and investment.
The Golden Age (1945–1971)
The system underpinned a quarter-century of growth. Europe rebuilt under the Marshall Plan, Japan experienced rapid development, and global trade flourished under stable exchange rates. U.S. dominance was reinforced.
Collapse of the System
The system depended on U.S. gold reserves, which became insufficient as dollars flowed abroad. In 1971, Nixon suspended dollar-gold convertibility, ending the Bretton Woods monetary system. Exchange rates began to float.
6. Core Concepts in International Relations History
State
The state is a political and legal entity defined by a permanent population, a defined territory, a functioning government, and sovereignty. Since the Peace of Westphalia, the state has been considered the primary actor in the international system, although its dominance has been challenged in modern times by nonstate actors such as international organizations or multinational corporations.
Nation
A nation is a community of people connected through shared identity markers such as culture, language, history, and traditions. Nations often claim a sense of belonging and unity. However, not all nations have states, and not all states perfectly align with nations.
Nation-State
A nation-state emerges when a nation and a state overlap, meaning that the political boundaries of the state largely coincide with the cultural identity of a nation. This has long been an ideal in international politics but is rarely fully realized, often leading to nationalist conflicts and struggles for self-determination.
Sovereignty
Sovereignty refers to supreme authority. It comes in two forms:
- Internal sovereignty: Authority is recognized as the highest within a state’s territory.
- External sovereignty: Recognition of independence by other states in the international community.
Sovereignty is one of the core principles of the international system established at Westphalia.
Legitimacy
Legitimacy is the recognition that authority is rightful and should be obeyed. A government or international order that lacks legitimacy struggles to maintain stability. Events such as the Congress of Vienna or the creation of the League of Nations aimed to create legitimate political orders to avoid instability.
Anarchy
In IR, anarchy means the absence of a central authority above states. It does not imply chaos but a decentralized system where no state has ultimate authority over others. This condition leads to a self-help system, as described by Kenneth Waltz, where states prioritize their survival and security.
Balance of Power
The balance of power principle distributes power so that no single state can dominate. This was the organizing principle of the Concert of Europe after 1815, and it has been central in international politics ever since.
Collective Security
Collective security is the idea that an attack on one state is considered an attack on all. This principle underpinned the League of Nations and later the United Nations, though its success depends on the willingness of states to act against aggressors.
International Law
International law is the body of norms and rules that govern interactions among states. It developed from early treaties like the Peace of Westphalia and became institutionalized through bodies such as the Permanent Court of International Justice (under the League of Nations) and later the International Court of Justice (under the UN).
Hegemony
Hegemony occurs when one state holds predominant power in the international system and can shape rules and norms to its advantage. Examples include Britain in the 19th century and the United States after 1945. Hegemony often stabilizes the system but may also provoke resistance.
Colonialism and Imperialism
Colonialism refers to direct control by powerful states over foreign lands and peoples, while imperialism often describes broader domination, whether economic, political, or cultural. Both systems deeply shaped the modern international system, producing global inequalities and resistance movements.
Global Governance
Global governance is the coordination of international affairs through institutions, norms, and rules. It does not imply a world government but rather mechanisms of cooperation and regulation. The Bretton Woods system (IMF, World Bank, GATT/WTO) and the United Nations are central examples.