History of Deaf Culture and Education in America
Citizenship and Education: The Black Deaf Community
Key Constitutional Amendments
- 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery.
- 14th Amendment (1868): Defined citizenship.
- 15th Amendment (1870): Prohibited voting discrimination based on race.
Education Barriers for Black Deaf Americans
- Slavery laws prohibited education for Black Americans, including Black Deaf individuals.
- Post-Civil War, separate schools for Black Deaf students emerged, often inferior in resources compared to White Deaf schools.
- Desegregation: Progress was slow, with some Black Deaf schools operating until the 1970s (e.g., Louisiana, 1978).
Notable Schools
- P. H. Skinner School for the Deaf (1856): One of the earliest schools for Black Deaf children.
Benevolent Paternalism in Deaf Education
Concept of Paternalism
Early Deaf education was often controlled by hearing administrators who believed they knew best for Deaf students, leading to limited autonomy for the Deaf community.
This approach sometimes resulted in marginalizing Deaf voices, despite intentions to provide care and education.
Impact
Paternalism created dependency on hearing leaders and stifled Deaf leadership in education.
The Oralism Versus Manualism Debate
Oralism
- Definition: Teaching Deaf students to speak and lip-read, rather than using sign language.
- Support: Supported by figures like Horace Mann and Samuel Gridley Howe.
- Goal: To integrate Deaf individuals into hearing society by making them “speak” as others.
- Opposition: Faced opposition from the Deaf community, as it often led to alienation and a loss of Deaf identity.
- Example: The Clarke School (1867) was founded on the principles of oralism.
Manualism
- Definition: The use of sign language in education, supported by Deaf educators like Laurent Clerc.
- Outcome: Developed Deaf culture and community, grounded in shared language and identity.
The Formation of Deaf Culture
Gallaudet and Clerc
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc founded the first American school for the Deaf in 1817, introducing sign language as the method of instruction.
Their work created a Deaf world where sign language was central to education and social life.
Residential Schools and Community
- Deaf students often attended residential schools, where they formed Deaf communities and identities.
- Isolation from hearing families led to the creation of Deaf culture within these schools.
First School Established
The American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut, was founded in 1817.
Martha’s Vineyard Deaf Community
Unique Historical Setting
In the 18th and 19th centuries, Martha’s Vineyard had a high population of Deaf residents due to hereditary deafness.
Bilingual Society
Both hearing and Deaf people used sign language, creating an inclusive environment where Deaf individuals were not marginalized.
Significance
This demonstrates how Deafness was accepted and integrated into everyday life in specific historical contexts.
A Disability History of the United States
Colonial America
Early settlers viewed disability, including Deafness, through a religious lens, often seeing it as a sign of divine will.
19th Century
The Industrial Revolution and changes in labor highlighted differences in ability, further marginalizing disabled people.
Disability as a Social Construct
Society’s views of disability evolved with cultural and economic changes, impacting Deaf people’s access to education and resources.