Habsburg Spain’s Decline: 17th Century Challenges and Shifting Power
Factors Contributing to Spain’s 17th Century Decline
Financial Strain and Military Weakness
The **lack of financial resources** was primarily due to a significant decrease in shipments of precious metals from America between 1630 and 1660. This excessive tax burden provoked rebellions and temporary secessions within the Spanish territories. Such circumstances forced Spain to restrict its foreign policy objectives and, in many cases, compelled it to seek peace.
The **loss of military personnel** compounded the financial difficulties. The lack of resources, coupled with a demographic crisis, made it increasingly difficult to recruit individuals for the army. The nobility, for instance, often avoided involvement in peninsular campaigns. In the navy, where experience and training were essential, the situation was similarly dire. This explains the continual defeats suffered by Spain in the second half of the seventeenth century.
Colonial Challenges and New Enemies
The **actions of the Dutch and British in Spanish-Portuguese colonies** further weakened Spain. In Asia, the Dutch established their own empire in the East Indies. They, along with the English and French, also established themselves in Guiana and the Caribbean. This forced Spain to invest increasing economic resources in defense and in ships for America, diverting funds that could have been used for the defense of the Iberian Peninsula.
A **new geopolitical landscape** emerged as the Ottoman Empire ceased to be the primary threat in the Mediterranean. The Spanish Crown now faced formidable new enemies: England, France, and the United Provinces, to which Portugal was added after its independence from Spain. Immersed in various fronts, Spain lost many of its battles. In the last decades of the seventeenth century, England and the United Provinces even had to support Spain against France to help it retain its territorial integrity.
The Westphalian-Pyrenees System: End of Spanish Hegemony
The mid-17th century marked the definitive end of Spanish hegemony in Europe, largely solidified by the **Treaty of Westphalia** and the **Treaty of the Pyrenees**.
- In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was signed, in which the Habsburgs acknowledged their defeat. Spain, by the Treaty of Münster, formally accepted the independence of the United Provinces. France, meanwhile, was consolidated as the hegemonic power in Europe, extending its possessions to the east and disrupting land communications between Flanders and the Italian states.
- Despite Westphalia, Spain continued its war with France and faced ongoing rebellions in Catalonia and Portugal. The entry of England into the war in 1655 proved decisive, forcing Philip IV to sign the Peace of the Pyrenees with France. Spain ceded several strategic places in Flanders, Roussillon, and Cerdanya to the French kingdom. The war with Portugal, supported by England, continued until 1668. Upon Philip IV’s death, Spain finally recognized the independence of its neighboring country, receiving Ceuta in exchange.
- French aggression against Spain persisted, exploiting the weakness of Charles II and the isolation of Spanish territories in northern Europe. Consequently, much of Spanish Flanders and the entire County of Burgundy were conquered by Louis XIV between 1668 and 1678. Spain’s inability to defend its possessions and the absence of a clear successor to the throne promoted various partition schemes among European powers, ultimately leading to the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession over the Habsburg inheritance.
The Character of the Spanish Baroque
The term **Baroque** designates both a distinctive artistic style and a profound cultural movement that flourished in Spain from the late sixteenth to the mid-seventeenth century. Originating in Italy, the cradle of Renaissance Classicism, its main center was Rome, the seat of the Papacy. This new cultural expression was largely put at the service of the Church, seeking to reach a mass audience through an appeal to the senses. It initially drew on elements of naturalistic realism, ostentation, and luxury. The Baroque style moved away from the classical balance, instead emphasizing dynamic movement and dramatic effect. Among the favorite subjects of the Spanish Baroque, one finds the exaltation of monarchical power, the dogmas of the Catholic faith, and a pervasive contempt for earthly life.