Habsburg Spain: Imperial Power, Conflicts, and Decline
The Reign of Charles V
Charles V inherited the Spanish throne in 1516. He inherited a vast empire and became the most powerful ruler of his time. His inheritance included:
- From the Catholic Monarchs: All the Spanish possessions, including the Crown of Castile and Aragon, parts of America, Italy (Sardinia, Naples, and Sicily), the Canary Islands, and some territories in Africa. As king of Spain, he was known as Charles I.
- From his paternal grandparents: The title of Holy Roman Emperor, along with territories in Germany, the Low Countries, and parts of France. As emperor, he was known as Charles V.
The Revolt of the Comuneros
Charles V angered both Castilian cities and nobles. The cities were annoyed about the new taxes which the urban bourgeoisie had to pay. The nobles were annoyed because the king gave the most important government positions to foreigners. The Revolt of the Comuneros started in Toledo.
The revolt in Toledo led to a significant change in Charles V’s approach. He began to pay more attention to Castile. He married and raised his son, Philip II, at the Spanish court. He also appointed Castilian nobles to the highest government posts, and they assisted him in his military expeditions abroad.
Charles V’s Imperial Governance
Each territory of the empire had its own laws and institutions. Charles V did not have absolute power; decisions about taxes required the approval of the Parliaments. The court was itinerant. Each territory had a viceroy who ruled in the name of the king.
Challenges During Charles V’s Reign
Charles V faced several significant challenges during his reign:
- Rivalry with France: France was the main rival for supremacy in Europe.
- Ottoman Threat: The Ottoman Turks were his other great rivals, posing a constant threat to his Mediterranean possessions and central Europe.
- Protestant Reformation: The most serious problem was the rebellion of the German Protestant princes. Charles V tried to stop the expansion of Lutheranism.
Ultimately, Charles V divided his vast possessions: the Holy Roman Empire went to his brother Ferdinand, and the rest of his territories, including Spain and its overseas empire, went to his son, Philip II.
The Reign of Philip II
The empire of Philip II was the most powerful of its time. It consisted of Spain, the Low Countries, Italy, vast parts of America, North Africa, and the Far East.
Philip II was the son of a Portuguese princess. When the King of Portugal died, Philip inherited Portugal’s vast possessions, including its colonial empire. This made Philip II’s empire the largest in the world. The king ruled from Madrid, which became the center of his monarchy, known as the Hispanic Monarchy.
Philip II’s Policies and Objectives
Philip II’s policies had two main objectives: to preserve his vast territories and to defend Catholicism. These objectives were the primary reasons for many wars throughout his reign, particularly in the Low Countries.
Challenges During Philip II’s Reign
Philip II faced numerous conflicts and challenges:
- War with France: The conflict with France reignited towards the end of his reign.
- Confrontation with the Ottoman Turks: The Ottoman Empire threatened Spanish possessions in the Mediterranean. Spain, the Pope, and Venice formed an alliance and decisively defeated the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
- Revolt in the Low Countries: Calvinism had spread throughout the Low Countries, provoking strong opposition to Philip II’s rule. The northern provinces rebelled against Philip II and declared their independence as the United Provinces.
- Confrontation with England: English support for the rebels in the Low Countries led Philip II to send the Invincible Armada to fight, but it was decisively defeated in 1588.
Exploration and Expansion in the New World
The most important expeditions of conquest were led by Hernán Cortés (conquering the Aztec Empire) and Francisco Pizarro (conquering the Inca Empire).
Beyond conquest, there were also significant expeditions for exploration. America served as the starting point for expeditions across the Pacific, further expanding Spanish influence.
Governance of the Spanish American Empire
The Spanish monarchs treated America as an extension of Spain. The vast conquered territory was divided into two main administrative units: the Viceroyalty of New Spain and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Trade between America and Spain flourished, bringing immense wealth to the crown.
Spain’s Decline: The 17th Century Crisis
In the 17th century, Spain, despite having the richest and most powerful empire, began to face significant problems and conflicts with other European powers. Consequently, Spain lost its supremacy and suffered a profound economic and social crisis.
The Reign of Philip III
Philip III, son of Philip II, began his reign in 1598. His pacifist foreign policy led to the signing of a peace treaty with England in 1604 and the Twelve Years’ Truce with the United Provinces in 1609.
In 1607, the king declared bankruptcy. In domestic policy, Philip III controversially expelled the Moriscos (descendants of Muslims converted to Christianity) in 1609, forcing many people to abandon their homes and livelihoods.