Habsburg Spain: Charles I, Philip II, and the Americas
The Reign of Charles I (Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor)
Accession and Internal Challenges
In 1517, King Charles I, grandson of the Catholic Monarchs, ascended to the throne, initiating a new dynasty: the House of Austria. His primary ambition was to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor, a goal he achieved. However, this ambition sparked significant discontent in Hispanic lands.An insurrection, known as the Revolt of the Comuneros, broke out in the Crown of Castile, but its forces were defeated at Villalar. Similarly, the Revolt of the Germanías erupted in the Kingdom of Valencia, spreading to Mallorca, and was also crushed.
Foreign Policy and Conflicts
Charles I’s foreign policy was driven by his role as Emperor, compelling him to defend the interests of the House of Austria and Christianity. This led him to confront three major adversaries:
- The French: The struggle against France primarily unfolded on Italian soil. Following the decisive victory at Pavia, the Peace of Cambrai was signed, largely restoring the pre-war status quo.
- The Ottoman Turks: In his campaigns against the Turks, Charles I launched a victorious attack on Tunis but failed in an expedition to Algeria.
- The Protestants: The most significant challenge Charles I faced was in Germany, where Martin Luther’s Protestant doctrine had rapidly spread. The Emperor attempted to suppress the Protestant movement, but failing in his diplomatic efforts, he resorted to military action against the Lutherans, whom he ultimately defeated.
Towards the end of his reign, Charles I abdicated, leaving the Spanish crown to his son, Philip II.
The Reign of Philip II
Foreign Policy: Defender of Catholicism
Philip II’s foreign policy was primarily focused on the defense of Catholicism.
- A decisive victory against the French at San Quentin ushered in a long period of Hispano-French concord.
- A few years later, the Spanish navy, alongside the Venetian fleet, decisively crushed the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Lepanto.
- The most acute problem Philip II encountered was the protracted Revolt of the Netherlands.
- Spain also confronted England, which protected the Protestant rebels in the Netherlands. Philip II dispatched the Spanish Armada against England, but the expedition ended in failure.
Internal Politics and Iberian Unity
Internally, Philip II’s reign saw efforts towards Iberian unity and faced challenges such as the Moorish revolt in the Granada region.
The Americas: Discovery, Conquest, and Administration
Early Exploration and the Treaty of Tordesillas
The rivalry between Portugal and Castile over new territories was resolved by the Treaty of Tordesillas. This treaty established a dividing line 370 leagues (approximately 1,110 nautical miles) west of the Cape Verde Islands, allocating lands to the east for Portugal and to the west for Castile.Portugal’s progress in exploration was driven by the search for a new route to the Indies, as traditional routes were blocked by the Ottoman Turks. Prince Henry the Navigator spearheaded projects to sail around the African continent, culminating in Bartolomeu Dias successfully rounding the Cape of Good Hope.
Columbus’s Voyages and the “New World”
Another potential route to the Indies was by crossing the Atlantic in a westerly direction. Knowing the Earth was spherical, Christopher Columbus proposed this idea first to Portugal, and then, finding no support there, to Castile. Queen Isabella I of Castile eventually supported his venture.In 1492, the Capitulations of Santa Fe were signed, granting Columbus the title of Admiral, governorship of any lands he discovered, and 10% of the potential gains. His expedition, consisting of three ships – the Santa María, the Pinta, and the Niña – departed from the port of Palos in early August.On October 12, 1492, they arrived at San Salvador. Initially, everyone was convinced they had reached the Indies. However, it soon became clear that they had not discovered the expected Indies, but rather a new continent, which was later named America. The first circumnavigation of the Earth was later completed by Ferdinand Magellan’s expedition, concluded by Juan Sebastián Elcano.
Spanish Conquest and Colonial Administration
When Charles I ascended the throne, Castile’s dominion in the Americas was limited to the Antilles. However, during his reign, a spectacular expansion across the American mainland occurred. Notable conquests included:
- Mexico, conquered by Hernán Cortés.
- Peru, conquered by Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro.
The Spanish organized the American territory based on the institutions of Castile. Key administrative structures included:
- Audiencias: High courts and administrative bodies.
- Viceroyalties: Two primary viceroyalties were established: New Spain (with its capital in Mexico City) and Peru (with its capital in Lima).
- Mayors, Governors, and Councils: Local administration was modeled on Castilian councils.
Spain’s primary interest in the Americas was its vast mineral wealth, particularly precious metals from mines. The Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) regulated commerce. Large fleets regularly crossed the Atlantic in both directions, though they required the protection of warships due to the constant risk of piracy.