Grammatical Functions and Sentence Structure in Spanish Syntax

Posted on Oct 11, 2025 in Linguistics and Applied Languages

Syntactic Phrases and Their Structure

A phrase (or syntagma) is a sequence of words arranged around a nucleus, functioning as a specific unit within a sentence. It is the specific name given to the whole unit.

Types of Phrases

  • Noun Phrase (NP): Structure: Determinant + Core + (Complements).
  • Prepositional Phrase (PP): Structure: Preposition + (Determinant) + Subordinated Syntagma/Clause.
  • Adjectival Phrase (AdjP): Structure: (Quantifier/Degree of Intensity) + Adjective + Complement.
  • Adverbial Phrase (AdvP): Structure: (Quantifier) + Adverb + Complement.
  • Verb Phrase (VP): Structure: Core (Verb) + (Verb Complements).

Functions of the Noun Phrase

A Noun Phrase can function as:

  • Subject
  • Direct Object (DO/CD)
  • Attribute
  • Complement of the Name (CN)
  • Adverbial Complement
  • Indirect Object (IO/CI)
  • Agent Complement (CAg)

Complements of the Name (CN)

The Complement of the Name (CN) is a unit, often a prepositional phrase, that completes the core meaning of a noun phrase.

Types of CN

  1. Prepositional CN (SNprep): A prepositional phrase that complements the accompanying noun.
  2. Noun in Apposition: A noun placed in apposition to another noun.
  3. Adjacent CN: An adjective that is attached directly to the noun it modifies.

Characteristics of CN Modifiers

The CN acts as a modifier of the noun phrase kernel and is not related to any specific grammatical category. CNs can be:

  • Specifying (Restrictive): They restrict or require a significant extension of the noun’s meaning.
  • Explanatory (Non-restrictive): They do not restrict the noun but provide additional information or clarification.
  • Apposition: Two grammatical elements placed together, where the second specifies the first.

The Direct Object (DO)

The Direct Object (DO), or Complemento Directo (CD), is a noun or a unit that acts as a noun, used to complete the reference of some transitive verbs. It appears only in sentences with transitive verbs.

  • Substitution Test: The DO is replaced by the unstressed pronouns lo, la, los, or las, agreeing in gender and number.
  • Pleonastic DO (CD Pleonastic): When the direct object precedes the verb, a pleonastic pronoun is added. Example: To John, they never lie.

The Agent Complement (CAg)

The Agent Complement is the prepositional phrase that performs the action of the verb in passive sentences.

  • Structure: Noun phrase or equivalent unit headed by the preposition by (or of).
  • Occurrence: Occurs only in sentences with transitive verbs when they are in the passive voice (created by the verbal periphrasis BE + participle).
  • Recognition Test: When converting the sentence from passive voice to active voice, the Agent Complement becomes the subject of the active sentence.

Core Sentence Elements

The Subject

The subject is the sentence element that agrees in number and person with the main verb.

Proof of Concordance

The verb must agree with the subject in number and person.

Types of Subject

  • Express Subject: Explicitly stated. Example: Jose Luis came to work yesterday.
  • Elliptical Subject (Omitted): Understood from context. Example: Let’s consider (we).
  • Undetermined Subject (Impersonal): The agent is unknown or generalized. Example: It is said there will be layoffs.
  • Agent Subject: Performs the action. Example: Peter eats pears.
  • Patient Subject: Receives the action (in passive voice). Example: The patient was operated on by the doctor.
  • Causative Subject: Causes the action. Example: Felipe II built El Escorial.
  • Compound Subject: Two or more elements joined. Example: Peter and Luis went fishing.

The Predicate

The predicate is a verb phrase that expresses what the sentence says about the subject. It can be nominal or verbal.

Nominal Predicate

Structure: Subject + Copula (Linking Verb) + Attribute.

Copulative verbs (like be, seem, become) link the subject to a quality or state (the Attribute). Example: The girl is smart.

Substitution Test: The nominal predicate can often be replaced by what or so. Example: Luis is the director. → Luis is what?

The Attribute

The Attribute expresses qualities attributed to the subject. It can be played by:

  • Noun phrase or Noun
  • Adjective
  • Prepositional Phrase
  • Pronoun
  • Adverb

Substitution Test: The Attribute can be replaced by the unstressed pronoun so (or it), especially with the verbs ser and estar. Example: Ramon is so smart. → Ramon is so.

Finding the Attribute
  1. Identify the copulative verb.
  2. Verify descriptive name matching (concordance).
  3. Attempt replacement with so or it.

Verbal Predicate

The Verbal Predicate (VP) is constituted by a predicative verb (non-copulative) or a verbal periphrasis, along with its complements. Example: The neighbor eats salad every day.

  • Active Verbal Predicate: The subject performs the action. Example: Miguel wrote a book.
  • Passive Verbal Predicate: The subject receives the action. Example: The book was written by Miguel.

The Complement of Verbal Regime (CRV)

The Complement of Verbal Regime (CRV), also known as the Prepositional Complement, is a complement introduced by a preposition and required by the verb. Without this complement, the sentence is often incorrect or changes meaning significantly. Example: Success depends on your effort.

Recognition and Characteristics

  • The CRV is always preceded by a specific preposition (e.g., to, from, on).
  • It cannot be replaced by unstressed pronouns (le, les, lo, la, se).
  • It can sometimes be replaced by the demonstrative pronoun that (or eso).

Categories of CRV

  • Noun Phrase
  • Gerund Group
  • Dependent Clause
  • Pronoun