Gothic Art and Architecture in the Late Middle Ages
Gothic Art and Architecture
7.1 An Urban Style
From the second quarter of the 12th century, Gothic art and architecture developed in Northern France. It was an urban style that reflected the splendor attained by the bourgeoisie and the cities, who did not hesitate to finance expensive buildings, decorating them with sculptures, paintings, and stained-glass windows.
7.2 Gothic Architecture
General Characteristics
Gothic architecture, made of stone, is characterized by the combination of three building elements:
- The pointed arch, enabling considerable elevation to be achieved.
- The ribbed vault, formed by the intersection of two arches.
- The flying buttress, which allowed walls to lose their supporting role so that large openings could be made. This provided Gothic buildings with great brightness and color.
Types of Gothic Buildings
The most important religious building was the cathedral. The Gothic cathedral usually has a Latin cross or cruciform plan. The exterior of the building has a façade framed by two towers, large entrance doors, and a rosette or circular window. The most prominent secular buildings were town or city halls, marketplaces, and the palaces of nobles and bourgeois.
8. Gothic Art (II): Sculpture, Painting, and Stained Glass
8.1 Gothic Painting and Sculpture
Gothic sculpture and painting showed a certain interest in beauty, movement, and the expression of dramatic feelings or affection. They were also more realistic. The subjects continued to be religious.
Monumental sculpture is mostly situated on façades and especially on portals. The sculpted figures are detached from the wall behind.
Free-standing sculpture became more realistic and natural. The crucified Christ appears in an attempt to convey suffering. The Virgin is represented as the Mother of God. A new theme also appeared: the Pietà.
Gothic painting was no longer limited to the walls of churches, now taken up by stained glass windows. Books are also illustrated with miniatures.
8.2 Stained Glass Windows
Stained glass windows fulfilled a triple function: they protected from the cold, they created bright, colored light and a spiritual space inside the cathedral, and they symbolized the divine.
The Political and Territorial Decline of Al-Andalus
After the end of the Caliphate of Córdoba, al-Andalus began a progressive political and territorial decline. During this time, the evolution of al-Andalus went through three periods: the Taifa Kingdoms, the Almoravid rule, and the Almohad rule.
1.1 The Taifas (1031-1085)
Each Taifa included a main city and its surrounding territory and was dominated by one ethnic group:
- Arabs, in Córdoba, Sevilla, Toledo.
- Muslims of Slavic origin in the eastern part of the peninsula.
- Berbers in Malaga and Sevilla.
The Christian states in the north took advantage of their weaknesses. This is how Alfonso VI of León conquered Toledo (1085).
1.2 The Almoravids (1085-1144)
Fearful of being defeated, the kings of the Taifas asked for aid from the Almoravids, who were nomadic Berbers that had formed a large empire in North Africa with their capital in Marrakech. The Almoravids entered the Peninsula and defeated the army of Alfonso VI of León in the Battle of Sagrajas. They later imposed their rule over al-Andalus.
1.3 The Almohads (1147-1224)
After conquering Marrakech, the Almohads entered the Peninsula. They implemented greater religious radicalism. They were later defeated in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, which allowed the Christians to advance through the Guadalquivir Valley. Almohad power began to decline, and the Almohads were driven to North Africa in 1492. The Andalusi territory was reduced to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.
Consolidation and Advance of the Christian Kingdoms
2.1 The Kingdoms of Castilla and León
Castilla and León became consolidated into a single kingdom in 1230 when Ferdinand I definitively united both territories. With this, the territory of al-Andalus was reduced to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada.
2.2 The Eastern States and Kingdoms
The Crown of Aragón
Aragón and Navarra were united between 1076 and 1135. The Crown of Aragon was formed in 1137 after the marriage of Petronilla, heir to Aragón, to Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona.
The Kingdom of Navarra
After separating from Aragón, Navarra underwent attempts at annexation by Castilla and Aragón. To avoid annexation, it formed ties with France via matrimonial alliances.
2.3 The Kingdom of Portugal
Portugal became independent from León in 1143. From then on, it initiated its own territorial expansion towards the south.
The Late Middle Ages in Europe
1.1 The 14th Century Crisis
During the 14th century, all European countries suffered a deep crisis due to three huge calamities: wars, the plague, and famine.
Wars
The longest and most devastating war in Europe was the so-called Hundred Years’ War, in which France and England fought against each other. In other European countries, feudal lords fought amongst each other and against the king in wars that destroyed their territories.
Plague
Plague epidemics were frequent during this time. The most important one, called the Black Death, particularly affected the cities.
Famine
Several successive years of heavy rainfall led to the loss of harvests.
1.2 Consequences of the Crisis
- The European population declined from 80 to 45 million people.
- The economy declined. Agricultural production was reduced, and trade went into crisis.
- Society witnessed an increase in conflicts in rural and urban areas.
- Art expressed the pessimism brought on by the crisis.
The Late Middle Ages in Al-Andalus: The Nasrid Kingdom
2.1 The Kingdom of Granada
The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada was the only Muslim kingdom that endured on the Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages.
Its survival up until 1492 was due to various favorable circumstances: the mountains of Sierra Nevada acted as a natural defensive barrier, its access to the Mediterranean favored the support of Muslims and encouraged trade, and diplomacy was used to negotiate peace.
Political conflicts were constant in the Nasrid kingdom. The Nasrid economy, however, flourished. This was due to the expansion of irrigation, mining, and textile handicrafts.
2.2 Nasrid Art
During this period, the most important architectural work was the Alhambra. It consists of various parts:
- The Alcazaba: It is a fortified area where the military garrison was located. It consists of walls and defense towers.
- Generalife: The recreational estate with gardens built by Muhammad II.
- The Royal Complex: Includes two royal palaces. The palaces consisted of two rooms or a group of rooms set around courtyards, with fountains and gardens.
The complex was completed with a palatine city, or administrative district, with houses, mosques, public baths, and a cemetery.