Globalization and its Discontents: A Critical Analysis
ITEM 12. QUESTIONS:
1. Fukuyama’s “End of History” Theory
Francis Fukuyama, a Japanese-American author, declared the end of history. He argued that liberal democracies had demonstrated undeniable superiority over other political and economic systems. History, as a struggle of ideologies and classes, would conclude with the global expansion of the liberal democratic model. However, events following September 11, 2001, particularly the attack on the Twin Towers in New York, appear to challenge Fukuyama’s vision. While economic globalization has advanced, there have been numerous reactions against it, impacting the concepts of democracy and citizenship.
2. Characteristics of Globalization
Economically, globalization is characterized by:
- Free movement of capital: This forms the foundation of financial capitalism, primarily through stock market transactions.
- Conditional movement of goods and property: This is subject to the economic and tariff policies of major powers.
- Restricted movement of workers: This depends on the emigration policies of origin countries and the immigration policies of destination countries.
Politically and culturally, globalization involves extending the Western model of representative democracy globally. However, this objective is viewed by some as legitimate and by others as unacceptable political interference.
3. Arguments For and Against Globalization
There are two main positions regarding globalization:
- Supporters believe that spreading democratic values based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a vital political and moral goal. They argue that these rights and values are not culture-specific but represent a shared human heritage, serving as a criterion for the legitimacy of political power. Furthermore, they contend that a free-market economy fosters trade and cultural exchange, contributing to peaceful conflict resolution.
- Critics argue that the advocacy for democracy and human rights masks the interests of Western powers and transnational corporations seeking political, economic, and military control. They also point out that the defense of the free market is contradicted by the economic policies of powerful states that subsidize their domestic industries, hindering competition from developing countries whose producers cannot afford the tariffs protecting First World markets.
4. Anti-Globalization and Alternative Globalization
Anti-globalization designates movements opposing economic globalization and, in many cases, the spread of Western principles and values. These movements encompass anarchist groups, radical left and right-wing organizations, and various religious fundamentalisms. Their objectives vary, with some advocating revolutionary politics against capitalism and others seeking to preserve specific ways of life from external cultural influences.
Alternative globalization defines the stance of those who oppose capitalist globalization but support human rights, particularly third-generation rights. This term emphasizes an ethical dimension, contrasting with the market-driven globalization. The slogan “another world is possible” has become emblematic of these movements.
5. Dual Political Use of Media
Two potential uses of media exist:
- Positive political use: This aligns with public service and participatory democracy, either through political representatives or direct engagement.
- Negative political use: This occurs when media serve specific interests or powers to influence citizens’ opinions, leading to media democracy in a negative sense. Information becomes manipulation and propaganda.
6. Chomsky’s “Bewildered Herd” Metaphor
Chomsky’s bewildered herd metaphor critiques the prevailing notion of democracy, characterized by restricted information access and an elitist, bureaucratic political model. This model assumes that public opinion cannot grasp common interests and that only a specialized class of responsible men can comprehend and address societal problems. Media undeniably play a significant role in complex societies, often shaping public opinion to align with published views.
7. Globalization’s Impact on the Nation-State
Critics argue that globalization involves the subordination of politics to the economy, with the interests of transnational corporations dictating policy decisions. This has led to a profound crisis in the modern nation-state, traditionally characterized by absolute jurisdiction over its territory, a monopoly on legitimate violence, and the guarantee of sovereignty. Globalization has fostered interdependence among states and introduced numerous factors influencing national policies, resulting in a more fluid and flexible understanding of sovereignty.
Supranational institutions like the European Union and decentralization of the state (e.g., autonomous communities in Spain) have significantly altered the exercise of power. Civil society, including public opinion, media (the fourth estate), and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), plays an increasingly crucial role in shaping national and supranational policies. This points towards a global society, although its institutional forms are still developing.
8. Anthony Giddens’ Third Way
The Third Way, developed by Anthony Giddens, offers a political program that goes beyond traditional social democratic reformism. It promotes private initiative and emphasizes the responsibility of various actors, advocating for both rights and obligations. The Third Way seeks a political synthesis between liberal interventionism and a belief in the free-market economy.
9. Huntington’s Clash of Civilizations
Samuel P. Huntington argues that civilization represents the highest order of cultural identity. He posits that cultural differences between civilizations are irreconcilable, leading to a clash of civilizations that renders the concept of global citizenship unfeasible. Huntington’s thesis has sparked considerable debate, with critics accusing him of using the concepts of culture and civilization for political purposes.
10. Reconciling Fukuyama and Huntington
Huntington’s concept of civilization criticizes the interventionist policies of Western states aimed at establishing an international order based on democratic values. He suggests that the West should protect global political processes to prevent conflict without imposing its cultural model. Conversely, proponents of an encounter between cultures believe that humans can transcend the symbolic boundaries of their cultures. Respect for human rights and democratic values is a shared aspiration for supporters of global citizenship.
This does not imply that critics of global citizenship disregard human rights or democratic principles. Huntington advocates for upholding these rights within the civilization that generated them. However, this perspective clashes with the universal and unrestricted nature of the concept of Human Rights.