Global Resistance and the Road to World War I
Early nineteenth-century Europeans often viewed indigenous peoples as savage natives, believing themselves superior to all others. Despite the organizational and technological superiority of some local forces, such as the West Florida troops, European empires imposed their will globally, even on established powers like China and the Ottoman Empire.
Armed Resistance Against Colonial Domination
Notable examples of armed resistance against colonial domination include:
- The Zulu (South Africa): The Zulu, an ethnic group with a powerful military empire east of the British Cape Colony in Africa, successively confronted both the Boers and the British. The Zulu won significant victories against the Europeans, demonstrating their strength, and took a long time to be subdued.
- The Sepoys (India): The Sepoys were native Indian soldiers serving the British East India Company. In 1857, they revolted when a rumor spread that their rifle cartridges were greased with beef or pork fat.
- Indigenous Peoples (Americas): In the second half of the nineteenth century, numerous clashes occurred in the Americas between Indigenous peoples and settlers. Among the natives, the Cheyenne, Apache, and Sioux peoples stood out. Despite earning legendary victories, they were virtually wiped out or confined to reservations.
- The Boxers (China): The Boxers were so named by Europeans because their Chinese martial arts resembled boxing. They revolted against Westerners and for 55 days besieged foreign embassies in Beijing, prompting an international military intervention.
Imperialist Rivalries and the Armed Peace
The period known as the Armed Peace, from 1890, saw the German Empire, led by Kaiser Wilhelm II, pursue an expansionist policy. Wilhelm II initiated a massive program of investment in weaponry and naval expansion, intervening in overseas conflicts. This German attitude aroused the suspicions of other European states, which began parallel rearmament policies; this was particularly true for Britain, a global naval power with worldwide interests. Between 1890 and 1914, two new rivals emerged: Japan and the USA. This period of international relations, known as the Armed Peace, saw different countries play the following roles:
- France: Broke its isolation by forming an alliance with Russia. It improved relations with Britain, leading to the Entente Cordiale in 1904, and supported each other in conflicts against Germany.
- Britain: Wary of German expansionism, it decided to abandon its traditional isolation and seek allies. It became part of the Triple Entente with France and Russia.
- Italy: Aligned with France and Great Britain for possessions in the Mediterranean, taking Libya and some islands off the Aegean coast of Turkey. It became an uncertain partner to the Central Powers.
- Russia: When Wilhelm II chose not to renew the Reinsurance Treaty, Russia allied with France. It strengthened its friendship with Britain and, abandoning its expansionist dreams in the East, reached an agreement with Britain to share influence in Central Asia.
- Austria-Hungary: Maintained the Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy, needing the support of these powers to defend its interests.
- Japan and the United States: The U.S. gained possessions in the Pacific from Spain, seizing the Philippines in 1898. Japan expanded across the Pacific, clashing with China and Russia, and achieved hegemony in Korea and Manchuria.