Global Political Systems: Six Case Studies

Posted on Nov 29, 2025 in Social sciences

British Political Traditions and Constitution

Introduction: Britain, officially known as the United Kingdom (UK), is a strong and historic union of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Its constitution is unwritten, based on traditions and historical documents, allowing it to be easily adapted over time. Having once ruled a vast empire—where it was famously said, “The sun never sets on it”—Britain still plays an influential role in global politics, trade, and diplomacy.

Views of Thinkers on the British System

According to Walter Bagehot in his book The English Constitution, the British political system is a “dual system”: the dignified part, which symbolizes the monarchy and traditions, and the efficient part, such as the Prime Minister and the Cabinet, which actually runs the government.

According to Dr. Ambedkar, the British Constitution, though unwritten, is unique for its flexibility, stability, and effectiveness. He considered it a remarkable example of a blend of traditions and practicality.

Britain’s Political and Constitutional Development

Britain’s political traditions and constitutional development are among the oldest and most influential systems in the world. This system is a blend of democratic ideas, historical events, and traditions, which has transformed Britain into a strong and modern constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. As a result, this system remains stable, robust, and an inspiration globally even today.

Magna Carta (1215): This historic document established for the first time that even the King was subject to the law. Issued by King John in 1215, it promised that he would not levy arbitrary taxes and would rule justly. This document became the foundation of due process, liberty, and civil rights, setting clear limits on the power of the King—the first step in Britain’s constitutional development.
Glorious Revolution (1688) and Bill of Rights: The Glorious Revolution of 1688 was a significant turning point. James II was removed, and William III and Mary II were placed on the throne. This revolution was bloodless, hence called “Glorious.” It established the supremacy of Parliament and laid the foundation of constitutional monarchy. The Bill of Rights, passed in 1689, rejected the divine rights of the King and ensured that the monarch would remain under the authority of Parliament. It strengthened the protection of citizens’ rights, such as freedom of speech and fair trial, marking a strong step towards democratic governance.
Reform Acts (19th Century): The Reform Acts played a vital role in making democracy more inclusive. The first, the Great Reform Act of 1832, improved representation in Parliament. Later Acts (1867 and 1884) granted voting rights to the working class and people in rural areas, expanding the scope of democracy. In 1918, the Representation of the People Act gave limited voting rights to women and the working class after World War I, and by 1928, it was extended to all adults, laying the foundation of universal suffrage.
Empowerment of Parliamentary Democracy: As a result of the Reform Acts, the power of the House of Commons continued to increase, while the role of the House of Lords gradually became limited. This led to the emergence of a strong and representative democracy, where the elected representatives of the people began to play a decisive role in policymaking. This change made democracy practical and accountable.

Key Features of the British Constitution

Unwritten but Well-Organized Constitution: The British Constitution is not contained in a single document. It is formed through laws made by Parliament, court judgments, old traditions, and historical documents (like the Magna Carta). Because of this, it can change with time and adapt to new situations, making it the world’s oldest and most successful unwritten constitution.
Supremacy of Parliament: In Britain, Parliament is considered the highest authority. Any law made by Parliament is final and cannot be struck down by any court. Parliament has complete freedom to change or abolish old laws, making it the most powerful legislative body in Britain.
Flexible Constitution: The British Constitution is very flexible because it does not require any complex procedure to be amended. Parliament can change the constitution just like an ordinary law. This flexibility allows the constitution to easily adapt to changing needs over time and ensures stability in governance.
Constitutional Monarchy: The King or Queen is only a ceremonial head of state. The real power lies with the elected government, which is accountable to the people and Parliament. The monarch performs all duties on the advice of the government. This system maintains a balance between monarchy and democracy, ensuring governance remains under the control of the people.
Government Based on Common Law and Conventions: Many rules in the British Constitution are based on traditions and past court decisions rather than formal laws. These rules are called “constitutional conventions.” Even though they are unwritten, the government follows them, providing the constitution with stability and continuity.

Conclusion: Britain’s political traditions and constitutional development represent one of the most stable, ancient, and practical systems in the world. Its unwritten but systematic constitutional system, supremacy of Parliament, flexibility, constitutional monarchy, and governance based on traditions make it unique. Britain’s system of governance remains successful and an example for the world.

Brazil’s Constitutional Development and Features

Introduction: Brazil is the largest country in South America, known for its beauty and cultural diversity. Its history is linked to Portuguese colonialism. Through social and political struggles, Brazil underwent constitutional reforms. As a result of these changes, Brazil’s constitution has become the foundation of today’s democratic framework. The development of this constitution is a symbol of various struggles, reflecting social inequality, the protection of rights, and the search for justice.

Constitution of Brazil: It is the supreme law of the country. This constitution defines the structure of Brazil’s federal republic, the functioning of the government, the rights of citizens, and legal procedures. It is considered the foundation of Brazil’s democratic governance and was established on October 5, 1988.

Political and Social Conflicts in Brazil’s Development

The King’s Constitution (1824): Brazil gained independence in 1822, and on March 25, 1824, Emperor Pedro enacted the first constitution. Under this system, all power rested with the monarch. Common people had very few rights and were expected to obey the King’s decisions. Over time, resistance grew, leading to demands for change.
Republic and a New Constitution (1891): In 1889, the monarchy was abolished, and a republic was formed. In 1891, a new constitution was introduced, but only rich, educated men had the right to vote. Women, the poor, and Black people were excluded. This increased resentment and inequality in society, fueling demands for further change.
Vargas and Dictatorship (1930s): In 1930, Getúlio Vargas came to power. While workers and women gained some rights, in 1937 he imposed a dictatorial constitution. Press freedom was curbed, and elections were undermined. Dissent was suppressed, and opposition voices were silenced.
Military Rule (1964): In 1964, the military overthrew the government and seized control. The constitution was altered, curbing civil liberties. People were jailed for speaking out. Students, workers, and political leaders protested in the streets, demanding a return to democracy.
People’s Constitution (1988): In 1985, the military stepped down, and in 1988, a new constitution was enacted. It granted all citizens equal rights, freedom of speech, and the right to vote. This constitution was the result of long-standing popular struggles and marked Brazil’s transition to a true democracy.

Main Features of the Brazilian Constitution

A Democratic Constitution with Civil Rights: Brazil’s Constitution is democratic, placing the people at the center of power. It guarantees citizens the right to vote, speak, write, and express their opinions freely. All citizens are equal before the law. The Constitution strictly prohibits discrimination based on race, religion, gender, or economic status.
Federal Structure and Government Organization: Brazil is a federal republic comprising the Union, states, municipalities, and the Federal District. Each unit is granted rights and autonomy. The government is divided into three branches: the Legislature (which makes laws), the Executive (which implements laws), and the Judiciary (which delivers justice). The separation of powers is clearly defined.
Secularism and Religious Freedom: Brazil’s Constitution ensures the country remains secular. This means the state does not endorse or promote any religion. Every citizen has the freedom to practice, change, and preach any religion. Religious discrimination or forced conversion is not allowed.
Human Rights and Social Justice: The Constitution guarantees every person the right to live with dignity. It ensures access to education, healthcare, employment, and social security. It also protects workers’ rights, including minimum wages, working hours, and paid leave. The goal is to provide all citizens with a fair and decent life.
Independent Judiciary and Rule of Law: Brazil’s judiciary is independent. The Supreme Federal Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal) upholds the Constitution and interprets laws. No government or leader is above its rulings. Anyone who faces injustice can approach the court directly, which helps maintain the Constitution’s dignity.
Political Freedom and Constitutional Amendments: Brazil has multiple political parties, and everyone has the freedom to form parties, contest elections, and express political views. Constitutional amendments are allowed, but the process is strict to preserve stability. Any changes require approval by the Parliament, preventing arbitrary modifications.

Analysis: The Constitution of Brazil ensures democracy and the rights of its citizens. It clearly defines the structure of government, including the powers of the central government, states, and municipalities. The Constitution prohibits discrimination based on religion, caste, or gender. People are granted freedom of thought, religion, and participation in elections. Additionally, it guarantees the independence of the judiciary and includes a strict process for constitutional amendments, which helps strengthen democracy.

Conclusion: Thus, the Constitution of Brazil upholds democracy, protects citizens’ rights, and ensures justice. It clearly defines the structure of government, the federal system, and the independence of the judiciary, while also guaranteeing equality, religious freedom, and freedom of expression to all citizens.

The Party System of Russia

Introduction: The development of Russia’s party system began after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Following this, a multi-party system was introduced in Russia. However, over time, it evolved into a form of “Controlled Multi-Partyism.” This means that although multiple parties exist, the ruling party maintains dominant control. Due to the dominance of the United Russia party, opposition parties face difficulties in playing their role effectively, and the President holds a very strong influence.

Party System of Russia: Russia’s party system is complex and has developed in accordance with its history, culture, and political structure. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a multi-party system emerged. However, over time, it transformed into a form of “Controlled Multi-Partyism,” where multiple parties exist, but the main control over governance remains centralized.

Currently, the United Russia (Yedinaya Rossiya) party holds dominant power and is a major political force under the leadership of President Vladimir Putin.
Other parties such as the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF), the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), and A Just Russia (Spravedlivaya Rossiya) are active, but their influence is limited.
The opposition faces serious challenges in the electoral process, and political power remains highly centralized.

Main Features of the Russian Party System

Controlled Multi-Party System: Russia has a multi-party system, but it is not entirely free or independent. The United Russia party, in collaboration with President Putin, exercises significant control over elections and political affairs. This party is always in a winning position during elections, while other parties are not given meaningful participation in power.
Dominance of the Ruling Party: The United Russia party holds a dominant position in Russian politics. It remains in power continuously and is empowered by the support of President Putin. As a result, opposition parties struggle to participate in governance. The party influences nearly all major decisions and has become the central political force.
Control Over the Opposition: Opposition parties in Russia face difficulties in expressing their views freely. The ruling party and government exert pressure through political, administrative, and media mechanisms. Independent candidates and opposition leaders face numerous challenges, especially during the electoral process.
Electoral Barriers: New political parties in Russia must go through strict regulations and scrutiny to participate in elections. They face tough registration requirements, candidate selection procedures, and various administrative hurdles, making it difficult for them to enter the electoral arena.
Influence of the President: The role of the President is extremely significant in Russian politics. No party can function effectively without the President’s backing. The President plays a key role not only in politics but also in every major decision of the government and administration. Without their support, it is nearly impossible for any party to gain power.
Media Control: A large portion of the media in Russia is under the control of the government and the ruling party. It is used as a tool for political propaganda, leaving little space for independent journalism. As a result, the public often lacks access to accurate and unbiased information, and the media cannot operate freely.

Role of Russia’s Major Political Parties

United Russia (Yedinaya Rossiya): Formed in 2001, it soon became the most powerful party in the country. It supports President Vladimir Putin and has influence from Parliament to local government. With its help, the government implements decisions easily. The administration and the media also support it, so it is often called the “Party of Power.”
Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF): The KPRF is the largest opposition party, established in 1993. It follows the ideology of Marxism and Leninism. The party advocates for socialism, state control, and income equality. It is mainly supported by the elderly and rural population, but its influence is limited.
Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR): The LDPR was founded in 1991, with Vladimir Zhirinovsky serving as its long-time leader. The party promotes Russian nationalism and traditional values. Its rhetoric has often been aggressive. It is sometimes referred to as the “Controlled Opposition of the Kremlin” because it tends to support the government rather than challenge it, making genuine opposition less visible.
A Just Russia: Formed in 2006, it describes itself as a party with socialist and democratic thinking. It attempts to become a new alternative between United Russia and the Communist Party. It sometimes supports the government but considers itself the opposition. To date, its effect has not been substantial.

Conclusion: While there are several political parties in Russia, most of the power remains with the United Russia party. The opposition faces significant challenges during elections. The President holds substantial influence, and the media is largely controlled by the government, making it difficult for the opposition to express its views freely.

Israel: Political Nature, Economy, and Society

Introduction: After the Second World War (1939–1945), the Jews faced immense suffering. During the Holocaust, millions of Jews were killed, which led them to envision a secure homeland of their own. As a result, the state of Israel was established in 1948. Israel’s political system is based on a democratic parliamentary framework and is closely tied to Jewish identity. Additionally, its economic and social systems are also influenced by this political structure.

Israel: Israel is a Jewish nation established on May 14, 1948, following the atrocities faced by the Jewish community during the Second World War. Today, Israel is known for its democracy, security, education, and technological advancement, and stands as an example of a multicultural society.

Israel has no single written constitution. A Constituent Assembly formed in 1949 failed due to disagreements. Since 1958, a constitutional structure has evolved under “Basic Laws.”
In 1992, laws like “Human Dignity and Liberty” were passed. The Supreme Court recognized them as fundamental rights, supporting Israel’s constitution-like system.

Political Nature of Israel

Israel’s political nature is multifaceted, clearly reflected in its democracy, Jewish identity, security, and foreign policy. It is characterized by the following:

Jewish Nation and Establishment: Israel was established on May 14, 1948, as a national state for the Jewish people. The Law of Return (1950) grants Jews a special right to citizenship. The country adopts political policies that strengthen its Jewish identity and history.
Democracy and Parliamentary System: Israel’s government is based on a democratic parliamentary system. The Knesset (parliament) has 120 members elected through proportional representation. In its multi-party system, coalition governments are common, often making political stability challenging.
Religious and Secular Conflicts: Religious parties like Shas and United Torah Judaism have a strong influence in Israeli politics. Social and political differences between secular and religious groups persist, affecting political decisions and policies.
National Security and Military Strength: Israel prioritizes security policies. Its military power was strengthened after the wars of 1948, 1967, and 1973. Every citizen must serve in the military, which forms the foundation of the country’s security and political stability.
Diplomacy and Global Relations: Israel’s foreign policy relies heavily on a strong partnership with the United States. The Abraham Accords in 2020 improved relations with some Arab countries. The Palestinian conflict and criticism in the United Nations also impact its political and diplomatic stance.

Economy of Israel

Economic Beginnings and Development: Israel’s economy was primarily agricultural, based on cooperative models like Kibbutz and Moshav. Despite limited resources, farming expanded through drip irrigation, and later focus shifted to high technology and innovation.
Economic Reforms and Liberalization: After economic crises in the 1970s and 1980s, Israel implemented reforms. Privatization and foreign investment were encouraged. Financial stability strengthened the market. These reforms helped Israel become competitive in the modern global economy.
High Technology and Innovation: Israel is called the “Startup Nation” because sectors like cybersecurity, biotechnology, and software development have rapidly grown. It has the highest number of startups per capita and leads the world in technological innovations, which form a major part of its economy.
Trade and Exports: Israel’s trade sector is strong. Major exports include electronics, pharmaceuticals, agricultural products, and defense equipment. The United States, Europe, and Asia are its key partners. The service sector, including banking and tourism, also makes important contributions to the economy.
Contribution of Education and Skilled People: Israel’s economic progress is largely due to its quality education and hardworking people. Schools, colleges, and research centers provide strong training in science and technology. The military also trains youth in technical skills. This is why Israel leads in innovation and advancement.

Social Structure of Israel

Diversity of People: Israel is a multicultural society primarily home to Ashkenazi, Sephardi, Mizrahi Jews, and Russian and Ethiopian immigrants. Arab citizens, who make up about 20%, include Muslims, Christians, and Druze. All have legal rights, but inequalities still exist.
Religion and Society: Judaism forms the foundation of Israel’s social and cultural identity. There are differences between religious and secular Jews in matters like marriage and divorce. Muslim and Christian minorities live under their own religious laws.
Status of Women: Women have legal rights and actively participate in politics, the military, and other fields. However, gender inequality persists within some religious communities, affecting social mobility.
Urban-Rural Divide: Urban residents live modern lifestyles, while rural areas include cooperative farming communities like Kibbutz and Moshav, where people work and support each other collectively.
Education, Military, and Social Unity: Free and compulsory education is available to all, strengthening society. Mandatory military service fosters social interaction and promotes unity among different ethnic groups.

South Africa: Political, Social, and Economic Dimensions

Introduction: South Africa historically operated under a discriminatory constitution that prioritized white people, starting in 1909. Following the struggle led by Nelson Mandela, democracy was established in 1994, and the 1996 Constitution became the foundation of equality for the Black population. However, issues like racial discrimination, inequality in education, and unemployment persist. Although several schemes were introduced, their benefits remained limited. Achieving social unity and just development in the country remains a significant challenge today.

Politics of South Africa

Early Constitution and White Dominance (1909–1960): In 1909, the British Parliament passed the South Africa Act. This created a union that gave political rights only to white people. Laws passed in 1931 and 1934 increased some independence, but Black people were still excluded from politics. From the beginning, the system encouraged discrimination.
Apartheid Era and Unequal Constitution (1961–1983): Even after South Africa became a republic in 1961, Black people were not given voting rights or participation in government. Under the “Bantustan” policy, they were confined to separate areas. In 1983, a three-house parliament was formed, but since Black people were excluded, inequality worsened.
Move Toward Democracy (1990–1994): In 1990, President De Klerk began ending Apartheid. Nelson Mandela was released from prison, and bans on parties like the ANC were removed. A new constitution was drafted in 1993, and in 1994, the first democratic elections were held in which Mandela became the President, marking the beginning of a new era in South Africa.
1996 Constitution and Democratic System: In 1996, a new constitution was adopted based on equality, human rights, freedom, and the rule of law. It established a federal system (central and provincial governments), an independent judiciary, and recognized 11 official languages. This constitution is still the country’s most important law and inspires democracies around the world.

Social Aspects of South Africa

Racial Diversity and Classification: South Africa’s society is divided into four main groups – Black, White, Coloured, and Asian. This racial classification has historically affected not only social identity but also government policies and decisions, which deepened inequality.
Impact of Apartheid and Ongoing Inequality: From 1948 to 1994, Apartheid policies kept Black people away from quality education, healthcare, and jobs. After 1994, they gained political rights, but racial inequality still exists. The Black community often lacks equal access to social and economic opportunities.
Inequality in Education and Development: White and wealthy groups have easy access to quality education, while Black people in rural areas often attend poor schools with limited resources. This reduces their chances to succeed and keeps social divisions alive, leaving the dream of equality unfulfilled.
Challenges of Social Unity and Identity: People in South Africa try to maintain their ethnic identities while building unity as one nation. Parties like the ANC have tried to include everyone, but inequality and racial tensions still affect politics and create problems in social harmony.

Economic Aspects of South Africa

Economic Inequality and Poverty: Wealth and resources are very unequally distributed. White communities in cities are economically better off, while Black people in rural areas face poverty, unemployment, and low living standards. Even after 1994, this inequality remains strong.
Unemployment and Limits of Industrial Growth: Unemployment is very high, particularly among Black youth. During Apartheid, Black people were often restricted to low-paid jobs in mining and farming. After democracy, industrial growth and reforms occurred, but unemployment did not reduce significantly, and Black communities did not receive long-term benefits.
Land Reform and Property Distribution: During Apartheid, most land was owned by white people. After 1994, there were efforts for land reform, but progress was slow. Even today, Black people do not have fair access to land and resources, which blocks economic justice and social stability.
Economic Empowerment and Future Challenges: Programs like BEE (Black Economic Empowerment) tried to support Black business owners, but the benefits mostly went to people with political connections. Problems like poor education, corruption, and unfair distribution of resources still exist. New and accountable policies are needed to provide equal chances to all.

China’s One-Party System and Political Development

Introduction: China’s political history is thousands of years old, beginning with early dynasties like the Xia, Shang, and Zhou, and leading to the unification of the empire in 221 BCE by Qin Shi Huang. After the Qing Dynasty collapsed in 1911, the Republic of China was established. In 1949, the Communist Party, under Mao Zedong’s leadership, founded the People’s Republic of China. Today, under Xi Jinping’s leadership and a one-party system, China has become a global power.

China’s Political Traditions and Constitutional History

Establishment of the People’s Republic of China (1949): Under the leadership of Mao Zedong, the Communist Party of China (CPC) came to power. Imperial rule ended, and a one-party socialist government began, with full power concentrated in the hands of the CPC.
Implementation of the First Constitution (1954): The first constitution was implemented, marking the establishment of the socialist republic. It guaranteed equal rights to citizens, protection of public property, and promised the rights of workers.
The Great Leap Forward and Its Failure (1958): Mao launched the “Great Leap Forward” policy aimed at rapid development in agriculture and industry. This policy failed, leading to famine and economic crisis, which necessitated constitutional changes.
Deng Xiaoping’s Reforms (1978): Deng Xiaoping introduced the “opening up policy,” emphasizing integration into the global economy. Private investment and market-related reforms were encouraged, but one-party rule remained intact.
New Constitution (1982): The current constitution came into force in 1982, which attempted to increase civil rights. However, loyalty to the CCP and one-party rule were maintained.
Economic Liberalization (1990–2000): The 1990s and 2000s saw constitutional changes aligning with global markets and capitalist principles, supporting industrialization, urbanization, and technological progress.
Xi Jinping’s Centralization (2018): Under Xi Jinping’s leadership, constitutional reform took place in 2018, which removed presidential term limits. The centralized leadership model between the party and the state was further strengthened.

Contributions to the One-Party System

The Chinese political system is often cited as a significant example of a successful, centralized one-party state, demonstrating how stability can be maintained alongside rapid economic growth.

Structure of the Chinese Party System

China’s political system is based on a one-party structure, with complete control held by the Communist Party of China (CPC). The CPC is the only major party in the country, responsible for making and implementing policies. Although there are eight other “Democratic” parties in China, they serve only in an advisory capacity and do not share power. This system is referred to as “Multi-Party Cooperation,” but in reality, all authority remains in the hands of the CPC.

Centralization and Power Structure

In the Chinese party system, the entire control of power lies with the central leadership, especially the CCP General Secretary (who is also the President of the country) and the Politburo. The party’s decisions dictate governance at the national, provincial, and local levels. The purpose of this centralized structure is to maintain uniform policy and stability throughout the country. Local governments also work according to the party’s instructions, which reduces the possibility of decentralization of power.

Political Institutions and Their Role

Institutions like the National People’s Congress (NPC) and the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) mainly exist to provide advice and formally approve the policies of the Communist Party. The NPC is considered the highest legislative body, but it does not make independent decisions. The CPPCC represents various sections of society, but its role is limited to offering suggestions. Thus, these institutions are consultative rather than democratic in nature.

Criticism and Challenges of the Party System

The CPC’s one-party system has helped China achieve rapid economic growth, poverty reduction, and political stability. Since the 1980s, China adopted economic reforms and became the world’s second-largest economy. Supporters believe that this model is suitable for China. However, the biggest criticism of this system is the lack of independent media, opposition parties, and public participation. Issues such as restrictions on freedom of expression, censorship, and human rights violations have drawn international criticism. Within the country, concerns over corruption, regional inequalities, and demands for civil rights are also rising. Although the government has launched anti-corruption campaigns to address these problems, transparency remains limited. As China advances on the global stage, there is a growing need for its system to adapt to expectations of transparency and human rights.

Conclusion: China’s political system is an authoritarian and centralized system, with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in full control. The constitution recognizes the central role of the party. Elections are limited to local levels, and allied parties play only a ceremonial role. Since 1978, economic development has accelerated, but social inequalities have also increased. Autonomous regions have been granted limited freedoms. This system provides growth and stability but is also criticized for human rights violations.