German Unification: From Restoration to Reich
1. Origins of German Nationalism: The Restoration (1815-1848)
Germany comprised 39 states, all within a confederation whose only commonality was the Federal Diet, chaired by the Austrian emperor. This parliament met in Frankfurt, bringing together various German state rulers.
Genuine German national sentiment began to emerge after the Napoleonic Wars, gradually proving irresistible. Philosophers like Fichte, Hegel, and Ranke spearheaded an intellectual movement in universities and among young people, determined to unify Germany. Romantic ideals, a sense of justice, and a belief in Germany’s moral superiority fueled this movement. This second romanticism, originating in Heidelberg, focused on the Volk (people), based on a communal idea of superiority that would later deform into intransigent racism.
In Restoration Germany, Austria and Prussia disseminated political and philosophical ideas adopted by the bourgeoisie and junkers (Prussian landowners). The peasantry, however, remained largely conservative, wary of change and preferring their traditions. Intellectuals, students, and secret societies shared the ideas of the Restoration. By 1830, a unity movement emerged from these classes, described by Aycoberry as the “Republic of teachers.”
Economic crises caused popular uprisings instigated by liberals. Germany’s economic development lagged due to high tariffs between states, hindering the creation of a national market. Each state governed archaically, adopting protectionism, especially after 1816 when British goods flooded continental markets.
2. Consolidation of the Zollverein and the Great vs. Little Germany Debate
Prussia took the lead in German unification, beginning preparations during the Restoration and modernizing the state. Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian chancellor, first eliminated high tariffs with neighboring states, creating the Zollverein (German Customs Union, 1834). This measure united 25 German states (26 million people), opposed only by Austria and its allies.
Prussia built new roads and railroads to improve trade and increase population mobility. This led to rural exodus, urban growth, and German emigration.
The agrarian structure remained archaic, while industrialization created a growing middle class and proletariat. In 1848, the agrarian population constituted 70% of the confederation, forming the economic backbone. The bourgeoisie invested heavily, particularly in railroads. A severe economic crisis in 1846, worsened by poor harvests (due in part to a Prussian decree of 1834 forcing potato cultivation), caused industrial and financial turmoil as the bourgeoisie stopped investing. This social discontent was exploited by the national bourgeoisie and liberals in the 1848 revolutions.
In Heidelberg, liberal representatives from southern states met to discuss unification, forming the Baden Parliament. The Frankfurt Parliament, comprising up to 655 representatives from German states (including the Austrian Empire, excluding non-German regions), was convened. These representatives, mainly from the bourgeoisie and liberal professions, drafted the German Imperial Constitution (1849), establishing an emperor ruling with a parliament. This parliament would control foreign policy, military, and legislation, while granting states some autonomy.
Two parliamentary groups emerged: supporters of a Greater Germany (a federal state under Austrian hegemony) and supporters of a Little Germany (under Prussian hegemony). Young Germans favored unification within the existing confederation, while Great Germans sought a broader unification under Austria. However, lack of popular support hindered the process, and the 1848 revolution lost the opportunity for popular-led unification.
3. Stages of Unification
– The Schleswig-Holstein Question (1864)
The first step involved three Danish duchies under Austrian tutelage since 1815: Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg. Constitutional amendments without consulting inhabitants triggered protests and calls for German union. Bismarck sought to integrate these areas, gaining Austrian support. Austria and Prussia defeated Denmark, resulting in the Treaty of Prague (1864), giving Prussia Schleswig and the port of Kiel, and Austria Holstein. However, Prussian plans for a naval base in Kiel clashed with Austrian interests. The Gastein Convention (1865) divided the duchies, marginalizing Austria.
– The Seven Weeks’ War (1866)
Bismarck continued his unification policy, highlighting the benefits of unity. Austria opposed Prussian leadership, escalating tensions. Bismarck secured French and English neutrality and Russian support. Austria only had the support of major German states like Bavaria.
War broke out, culminating in the Battle of Sadowa (July 3, 1866), showcasing Prussian military superiority and the advantages of railroads. The North German Confederation was proclaimed on April 17, 1867, a federal state with William I as president and Bismarck as chancellor, creating a liberal and populist nation-state.
– The Franco-Prussian War (1870)
German unification stunned Europe and excited Germans. Bismarck believed a war with France (a traditional enemy) would further unite Germany.
Napoleon III’s lavish reign contrasted with Germany’s perceived barbarity. Bismarck avoided declaring war, hoping France would act first to preserve Prussia’s international prestige.
In 1868, the Spanish succession crisis arose. Leopold, son of Charles Anthony of Hohenzollern, was a candidate for the Spanish throne. France opposed this, fearing encirclement by Hohenzollerns (Spain and Germany). Bismarck encouraged Leopold’s candidacy, requiring William I’s approval. William I refused, but Bismarck publicized Leopold’s candidacy to provoke France, having secured William I’s refusal.
The French foreign minister, Gramont, gave a provocative speech. William I met with the French ambassador, Count Benedetti, at Ems. William I refused further negotiations. Bismarck edited the Ems Telegram to portray the king as disdainful, sending it to foreign governments. France declared war on July 19.
Prussian railroads, discipline, numbers, and weaponry secured victory. Napoleon III was captured at Sedan (September 1, 1870), and the Third French Empire collapsed. Prussia annexed Alsace-Lorraine and Metz.
The Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, proclaimed the Second German Reich and crowned William I emperor. The Vienna Congress system collapsed, and the new German state was formed with the addition of southern states, including Bavaria.