Generation of ’98: A Literary Overview of Spanish Modernism
Generation of ’98: A Literary Overview
Europeanism and the Taste for Pure-Blooded Spanish Identity
Sobriety: The language is intended to be simple and precise.
Subjectivism: Introspective vision of reality.
Idealization of the Landscape: The landscape, particularly the Castilian landscape, is seen as a symbol of the Spanish soul. Its description is poetic and expresses the emotion of the viewer.
Concern about the Problems of Spain: The Generation of ’98 was deeply concerned with the social and political problems facing Spain.
Thoughts to Ponder: The writers of this generation pondered the meaning of life, religion, the existence of God, time, and other existential questions.
Rubén Darío (1867-1916)
Born in Metapa, Nicaragua. Darío was appointed consul in Paris and died in León, Nicaragua. He is considered a leader of Modernism, and his book Azul is seen as the first major work of literary Modernism in Spanish America.
Miguel de Unamuno (1864-1936)
Born in Bilbao, Unamuno obtained the chair of Greek at the University of Salamanca. He was exiled for his political views but later returned to Spain and was reinstated at Salamanca. He died in Salamanca in 1936.
Unamuno’s work is marked by two crises of faith. The first led him to lose his religious faith, and the second led to intense reflections on the meaning of life.
Key Themes:
- Bleak vision of Spain
- The search for the meaning of human life
The Nivola: A unique genre developed by Unamuno, characterized by:
- Relinquishing any traditional plot preparation
- Minimizing descriptions and detailed situations
- Focusing on the protagonist’s existential struggle
- Promoting dialogue and internal reflection
Ramón María del Valle-Inclán (1866-1936)
Born in Villanueva de Arosa (Pontevedra), Valle-Inclán led an adventurous life, traveling extensively and returning ill from Rome. He died in Santiago de Compostela.
His eccentric personality is reflected in the originality of his writings. He broke with preceding literary movements and started a revolution in the world of letters.
Sonatas: A series of four novels corresponding to the seasons (spring, summer, autumn, and winter), which recount the adventures and heartbreaks of an ugly Don Juan, the Marquis de Bradomín.
Theater: Valle-Inclán’s theater is usually divided into five periods:
- Modernist Cycle: Featuring the Marquis de Bradomín.
- Mythical Barbarian Cycle: Including the play Divine Words.
- Farce Cycle
- Grotesque Cycle: Starting in 1920, this cycle introduces the concept of the “esperpento,” a new way of seeing the world that distorts reality to reveal its underlying truth.
- Final Cycle: Including the play Tyrant Flags.
Pío Baroja (1872-1956)
Born in San Sebastian, Baroja studied medicine but devoted himself to writing articles for newspapers. He joined the Royal Spanish Academy. He was arrested during the Spanish Civil War by Nationalist troops and exiled to France. He died in Madrid.
Novelistic Style:
- Incorporates philosophical reflections, humor, adventures, and social commentary.
- Emphasizes spontaneity and observation. Immediate reality provides settings, characters, and impressions.
- Novels often revolve around the existential evolution of a single protagonist.
- Simple narrative structure, with frequent dialogues and concise descriptions.
- Short, clear, and precise style.
Key Works:
- The Struggle for Life: A trilogy describing early 20th-century Madrid, consisting of The Search, Aurora Red, and The Tree of Knowledge.
- Tierra Vasca: Includes The House of Aizgorri, Zalacaín the Adventurer, and The Mayorazgo of Labraz.
- The Race: Includes The Lady Errant and The City of Mist.
Characters: Baroja’s characters are often unruly, wandering, restless, ambitious, and lacking in willpower. They reflect the anguish and disillusionment of the author.
Themes: Baroja’s work often reflects misogynistic, anarchist, and anti-clerical views.
Azorín (1873-1967)
José Martínez Ruiz, known by his pen name Azorín, was born in Monóvar (Alicante). He studied law and began writing articles for newspapers. He fled to Paris during the Spanish Civil War and later joined the Franco regime.
Literary Output: Azorín’s work is primarily divided between essays and novels.
Key Themes: He devoted special attention to the issue of Spain’s decline and analyzed its serious problems.
Style: Azorín believed that reality should be conveyed through fragments that transmit the character’s feelings in a given moment. He employed thorough descriptions, succinct phrases, and a sober style.
Novels: His novels are divided into four stages, with his most representative works appearing in the fourth stage.
Antonio Machado (1875-1939)
Born in Seville in 1875, Machado moved to Madrid at age 8. He studied at the Free Institution of Education and was appointed vice consul of Guatemala in Paris, where he met Rubén Darío. He became a professor of French at the Institute of Soria and married Leonor Izquierdo Cuevas when she was 15. Three years later, Leonor died, and Machado moved to Baeza, where he remained until 1919. He then returned to Castile and met the poet Pilar Valderrama (Guiomar), with whom he fell in love. He joined the Republican Alliance during the Spanish Civil War and was forced into exile in France, where he died in 1939.
Early Work: Solitudes, written while in Paris, reflects themes of time, loneliness, death, and God. Machado was encouraged by Rubén Darío to continue writing.
Campos de Castilla: A collection of poems that appeared in anthologies prepared by the author. It can be divided into four thematic cores:
- Soria: Machado presents Spain as a land of contrasts, dominated by a warrior past and a passive, miserable present. He uses the landscape as a vehicle to explore the soul of Spain, extending his observations on the Soria landscape to all of humanity.
- Baeza: This section recalls Machado’s time in Baeza and the landscape of Soria, where Leonor is buried. It includes social criticism directed at ignorant Spain while envisioning a new, dynamic, thoughtful, and hardworking Spain.
- Proverbs and Songs: These are meditations on the mysteries of humanity and the world, including reality and dreams, truth, God, love, time, and patriotism.
- Praise: These 14 poems pay homage to writers and thinkers whom Machado admired.
Popular Theater: Machado wrote seven plays with his brother Manuel, including Juan de Mañara and La Lola se va a los puertos.