Gender in Anthropology: Historical Roles, Feminist Movements, and Identity
Early Theories: Matriarchy and Social Power
Historically, the distinction between men and women was very marked. In the nineteenth century, evolutionists formulated certain approaches, now much discussed. For instance, Johann Jakob Bachofen, author of Das Mutterrecht (The Matriarchy), argued that ancient societies lacked organization and were highly promiscuous.
Bachofen’s Matriarchy Theory and Ancient Societies
These early groups hunted collectively as a team, and this, combined with their intelligence, enabled them to survive. The family system presented a problem: while the mother’s identity was known, the father’s was not. This difference gave significant weight to women within the group. Every woman knew who her children were, ensuring that all siblings were known and fostering strong bonds among them. The father, however, was often unknown, leading men to lose importance due to not knowing their descendants.
Shifting Power Dynamics and Paternity
In this situation, men began to realize the importance of controlling sexual access to women and knowing their descendants to gain social power. Despite the perceived political influence of women in this era, the existence of a true matriarchal society cannot be clearly demonstrated.
Historical Evolution of Gender Roles
Traditional Divisions of Labor
The organization of occupations at that time saw men hunting and providing for the group, while women were responsible for childcare, food preparation, and shelter. Elders, meanwhile, were tasked with transmitting knowledge.
Post-WWII: Women Enter the Workforce
This situation evolved over time, with men typically providing financial support for the family and women managing household chores and childcare. However, this dynamic underwent a significant change after the Second World War. While men fought on the frontlines, women stepped into roles that supported society. After the war, instead of returning solely to the domestic sphere, many women joined the permanent workforce.
Contemporary Goals: Equality and Homogeneity
Currently, the aim is for the distinction between men and women to be as homogeneous as possible, striving for a level playing field where both contribute equally to their families’ economic resources. This involves seeking a proportional and egalitarian division of labor, both outside and within the home. Achieving this point has required significant effort from various organizations, including the creation of ministries dedicated to gender equality, among other initiatives.
Feminism’s Influence on Gender Studies
It is important to highlight the demands of intellectual feminism.
Pioneering Anthropologists and Feminist Thought
Several anthropologists in the 1960s can be highlighted as precursors, such as Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict, whose work had a major impact on the social sciences. The philosopher and writer Simone de Beauvoir also significantly influenced feminist thought.
Distinguishing Dominance from Power
In the 1980s and 1990s, feminist studies saw marked maturation, exemplified by Peggy Reeves Sanday’s book Female Power and Male Dominance: On the Origins of Sexual Inequality, which distinguishes between dominance and power, showing they do not necessarily align. The intention of the feminist movement is not to place women above men, but to achieve true equality.
Sexual Orientation and Identity
When discussing gender, it is also important to address different sexual orientations. These have always existed but have not always been manifested as freely as today. While progress has been made, it is true that in some societies and cultures, they are still met with disapproval or even repression. The LGBTQ+ movement (including lesbianism) is a social movement fighting for the rights and acceptance of people with sexual orientations other than heterosexuality. This movement has had a significant political and philosophical impact on society.
Cultural Dimensions of Sexual Identity
It is also understood that sexual identity is not purely anatomical but is a culturally significant difference. Sexuality depends on historical and cultural factors. For example, wearing a skirt in some cultures is a symbol of femininity, while in Scottish culture, a kilt is a symbol of tradition and masculinity.
Cultural Relativism in Understanding Gender
The evolution of gender distinctions between men and women, the importance of achieving equality, and the free expression of sexual identity must all be understood from a cultural standpoint. We must recognize that each culture understands the role of gender in society differently, and our own understanding is not inherently superior. We tend towards ethnocentrism, but what if our culture had developed differently? Ideally, this would foster a more critical perspective, greater appreciation, and deeper understanding of other cultures.