Fundamentals of Science: Principles, Thinking, and Research
Nature of Science
1.1 Concept and Definition of Science
1. Concept:
Science is the study of natural phenomena, laws, and theories based on observation and experimentation.
2. Definition:
“Science is a method of acquiring knowledge that uses logical and objective processes to understand the truth.”
1.2 Characteristics of Science
1. Based on Facts:
Science is based on truth and facts, verified through observation and experimentation.
2. Universality:
Scientific laws and principles are universal, meaning they apply everywhere.
1.3 Importance of Scientific Approach in School Curriculum
1. Developing Rationality:
Instilling a scientific approach in schools makes students logical and rational.
2. Habit of Questioning:
A scientific approach encourages students to develop inquisitive and skeptical thinking.
2.1 Presuppositions of Science
1. Objectivity: Scientific knowledge is based on truth and facts, not on personal feelings or biases.
2. Uniformity: Scientific laws and principles apply universally and remain constant over time. E.g., the law of gravity remains the same everywhere and always.
3. Causality: Every event has a cause, and science attempts to understand it.
2.2 Observation and Experiment
1. Observation: In science, logical and clear observations are made, leading to the identification of a scientific problem.
2. Experiment: Experiments are designed based on observations to reach conclusions. Experiments test hypotheses.
2.3 Nature, Merits, Demerits, and Fallacies of Observation
• Merits:
1. Observation helps in finding the root causes of things.
2. It is the most primary and effective method of data collection.
• Demerits:
1. Personal bias can influence observation.
2. Incorrect conclusions can be drawn, which are not true.
• Fallacies:
1. Incomplete or incorrect observation.
2. Incorrect conclusions due to bias, intoxication, or mental confusion.
2.4 Types of Thinking
1. Analytical Thinking: In-depth analysis of a problem by examining its components and their relationships.
2. Creative Thinking: Generating new ideas, thinking in unique and innovative ways.
3. Abstract Thinking: Thinking at the level of general principles without considering concrete elements.
4. Reflective Thinking: Reconsidering one’s own thoughts and experiences.
5. Associative Thinking: Connecting different ideas and establishing relationships between them.
3.1 Nature and Social Science
1. Nature of Science: Science is the study of natural phenomena based on observation, experimentation, and analysis. It includes physical, chemical, and biological components.
2. Social Science: Social science studies human behavior, society, culture, and social structures. It includes sociology, psychology, economics, and political science.
3.2 Positive and Normative Science
1. Positive Science: Positive science studies knowledge that is objective and based on truth.
2. Normative Science: Normative science is knowledge based on value judgments, discussing what is right and wrong, good and bad.
3.3 Science and Other Disciplines of Knowledge
1. Science and Technology: Science is for discovering new knowledge, while technology is used to apply it.
2. Science and Art: While art is a means of expressing personality, aesthetics, and human emotions, science is based on rationality.
1) Superstition Eradication Program
• Objectives: To eliminate superstition, ignorance, and malpractices from society.
• Program Format: Lectures, workshops, poster exhibitions, debates for public education.
• Duration: Specific period for a particular project (e.g., 3 to 6 months).
• Action: Providing examples based on local events to expose superstitions.
2) Explain the Principles of Science: Objectivity, Uniformity, and Causality
• Objectivity
1. In science, observations and experiments are conducted without any personal opinions, feelings, or biases.
2. Conclusions are based only on facts and data analysis.
• Uniformity
1. Scientific laws and principles apply universally, meaning they always function the same way under specific conditions.
2. Example: The law of gravity is the same everywhere on Earth.
• Causality
1. There is a cause for every effect, and science seeks to discover it.
2. Scientific principles and laws are developed based on causality.
3) Briefly Explain the Steps of the Scientific Method
1. Identifying the Question or Problem: Observing and asking appropriate questions to find answers to specific problems, events, or phenomena.
2. Formulating a Hypothesis: Proposing a logical guess as a possible explanation or answer to the problem.
3. Experimentation and Observation: Conducting controlled experiments to test the validity of the hypothesis and collecting accurate data.
4. Conclusion and Verification: Drawing a conclusion based on the collected data and observations and verifying it with other scientific methods.
3) Research Methods
1. Observation Method: Closely observing events, behaviors, or processes in natural or controlled conditions.
2. Experimental Method: Measuring and analyzing the results of changes made in specific conditions, such as examining cause-effect relationships.
3. Survey Method: Collecting information from a large population through questionnaires, interviews, or polls.
4) Explain What a Hypothesis Is and Briefly Describe Its Parts
• A hypothesis is a logical guess of a possible explanation or answer to a specific problem or question. It can be tested and proven or disproven through experimentation.
• Parts of a Hypothesis:
1. Independent Variable: The factor that is changed in the research. Example: The amount of light a plant receives.
2. Dependent Variable: The factor that changes as a result of the change in the independent variable. Example: Plant growth.
3. Controlled Variables: Factors kept constant to avoid influencing the outcome. Example: Soil type, amount of water.
4. Hypothesis Statement: A logical and testable prediction made for the research. Example: “If the amount of light increases, plant growth will be faster.”
5) Creative Thinking
1. Generating New Ideas: Using imagination to find new and innovative solutions or approaches.
2. Creative Problem-Solving Approach: Exploring various possibilities and finding innovative solutions to problems instead of traditional methods.
3. Flexibility and Adaptability: Changing the direction of thoughts according to the situation and accepting new possibilities.
4. Developing Creativity: Encouraging innovation by freely evaluating ideas and implementing them.
6) Analytical Thinking
1. Fact-Based Thinking: Thinking based on objective data and evidence by systematically observing the problem.
2. Breaking Down into Components: Dividing a large problem into smaller, manageable components and analyzing them in depth.
3. Rationality: Identifying cause-effect relationships and drawing logical conclusions to make decisions.
4. Procedural Approach: Planning and implementing a sequential process to solve problems.