Fundamentals of English Phonetics and Phonology

1. Key Concepts

Phonetics: The physical study of speech sounds (production, transmission, perception).
Example: Studying how /p/ is produced with the lips.
Phonology: The study of how sounds function in a language system.
Example: /p/ vs /b/ distinguishes meaning in pat vs bat.
Grapheme: A written symbol representing a sound.
Example: The grapheme “sh” represents the sound /ʃ/ in ship.
Phoneme: The smallest sound unit that changes meaning.
Example: /ɪ/ vs /iː/ in ship (/ʃɪp/) vs sheep (/ʃiːp/).
Allophone: A variant of the same phoneme that does not change meaning.
Example: Aspirated [pʰ] in pin and unaspirated [p] in spin.

Articulatory phonetics: How sounds are produced.
Example: Describing how the tongue touches the alveolar ridge for /t/.
Acoustic phonetics: Physical properties of sounds (frequency, intensity, duration).
Example: Measuring the frequency of a vowel sound.
Auditory phonetics: How sounds are perceived.
Example: How listeners distinguish /s/ from /ʃ/.

Pulmonic egressive airstream: Air flows outward from the lungs.
Example: Most English sounds such as /s/ and /k/.

Three Systems

Respiratory system: Lungs provide air.
Example: Controlled breathing while speaking.
Phonatory system: Vocal folds vibrate or not.
Example: /z/ is voiced, /s/ is voiceless.
Articulatory system: Organs shape the sound.
Example: Lips produce /p/ and /b/.

Voicing: Voiced vs. voiceless.
Example: /b/ (voiced) vs /p/ (voiceless).
Place of articulation: Where the sound is produced.
Example: /m/ is bilabial (two lips).
Manner of articulation: How the air flows.
Example: /f/ is a fricative (air passes with friction).

Described by:

Tongue height: Close vs. open.
Example: /iː/ in see is close.
Tongue position: Front, central, or back.
Example: /uː/ in food is back.
Lip rounding: Rounded vs. unrounded.
Example: /uː/ is rounded.
Length: Long vs. short.
Example: /ɪ/ in sit vs /iː/ in seat.

Types

IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet): Universal system for writing sounds.
Example: cat → /kæt/
Phonemic transcription (/ /): Shows phonemes only.
Example: /kæt/
Phonetic transcription ([ ]): Shows detailed pronunciation.
Example: [kʰæt]

Syllable: A vowel nucleus with optional consonants.
Example: cat = /k/ onset + /æ/ nucleus + /t/ coda.
Open syllable: Ends in a vowel.
Example: go (/ɡəʊ/).
Closed syllable: Ends in a consonant.
Example: dog (/dɒɡ/).

Word stress: Stressed syllable in a word.
Example: aˈbout.
Sentence stress: Stressed words in a sentence.
Example: I bought a NEW CAR.
Content words: Nouns, verbs, adjectives (usually stressed).
Example: house, run.
Function words: Prepositions, articles (usually unstressed).
Example: of, the.

Assimilation: Sound changes to become similar.
Example: handbag → /ˈhæmbæɡ/
Elision: Sound omission.
Example: next day → /neks deɪ/
Linking: Connecting sounds between words.
Example: far away → /fɑːr əˈweɪ/

RP (Received Pronunciation): Non-rhotic (r not pronounced at the end).
Example: car /kɑː/
GA (General American): Rhotic (r pronounced).
Example: car /kɑr/