Fundamental Philosophical Inquiries: Existence, Cosmos, and Ethics
Philosophical Inquiries: Core Concepts
Learning Philosophy: Cultivating Critical Thought
Learning philosophy involves engaging with its typical contents and reflecting on fundamental questions. It’s not just about knowing answers, but also about learning how to think. This process allows us to distinguish between two kinds of philosophical inquiry: those that address the fundamental problems traditionally discussed in philosophy, and those activities related to learning to think for oneself.
Fundamental Questions in Philosophy
Philosophical dialogues have often led to highly controversial ideas, transforming our understanding of reality. These questions reveal our innate curiosity about the world that surrounds us. They also express a deep desire for self-knowledge. While challenging, these inquiries are essential for shaping our way of life and interacting with others.
Cosmic Origins: Philosophy and Science of the Universe
Historically, two distinct views have attempted to answer this profound question since antiquity. Ancient Greek thought, largely unfamiliar with the concept of creation ex nihilo (from nothing), generally accepted the world’s and humanity’s existence as an indisputable fact.
Modern perspectives, particularly informed by relativity theory, offer significant contributions. Physicists and astronomers, basing their studies on the evolution of stars, the redshift of galaxies (indicating movement away from us), and the existence of cosmic background radiation, have proposed an evolving or expanding universe. In 1948, George Gamow proposed that the universe originated from a single point in space and time approximately 15 billion years ago – an event now famously known as the Big Bang. The observed expansion of the universe aligns with Albert Einstein’s concept of curved space, often visualized as an inflating balloon.
The Question of the Meaning of Existence
This section addresses the fundamental question of human existence. The concept of ‘meaning’ can be understood in several dimensions:
Dimensions of Meaning
- Meaning as Purpose or Direction: This is evident in expressions like ‘direction of travel’ or ‘clockwise.’ Human actions often derive meaning from the pursuit of a specific goal.
- Meaning as Significance: Something ‘makes sense’ if it conveys meaning. Words, for instance, are signs as defined by philosopher Charles S. Peirce. There are also symbols that refer to other symbols, creating layers of meaning.
- Meaning as Value: This refers to what is ‘worthwhile.’ For example, it makes no sense to receive a heritage so burdened with debt that it prevents the heir from enjoying any beneficial outcome.
The Question of Death
Death is commonly understood as the irreversible cessation of vital activities, marking the end of life. However, it is a complex phenomenon that cannot be encapsulated in a simple definition. Jacques Monod, for instance, reflected on modern biology from a philosophical perspective concerning life and its termination.
The Problem of Evil
Philosophers have extensively considered the problem of evil, often from two perspectives. They have not only attempted to justify the existence of evil in a world governed by divine principles (a concept known as theodicy, a relatively recent term), but sometimes they have also seen God as the only path to triumph over evil. In such cases, one inevitably confronts the dilemma posed by Epicurus.
Doctrines emanating from ancient and medieval Neoplatonism, for example, argue that if all things proceed from a beneficial principle, then evil must be an emanation resulting from an inevitable degradation that affects different kinds of beings emerging from the Deity.
Types of Evil
Philosophers typically categorize evil into three main types:
- Metaphysical Evil: Identified with the finitude and limitations inherent in existence.
- Physical Evil: Arises from the operation of natural laws (e.g., natural disasters, disease).
- Moral Evil: Has its roots ultimately in the freedom of human beings to choose between different forms of action, often leading to suffering or injustice.
Reflections on Metaphysical and Moral Evil
Regarding Metaphysical Evil, its reflection finds a significant expression in Leibniz’s philosophy. He considered it impossible for a world to exist without some form of evil, precisely because the world is composed of finite and limited beings. The problem then becomes: how can a benevolent God create a world that, by its very nature of being finite and unstable, is necessarily imperfect or ‘wrong’?
The concept of Evil as Injustice particularly highlights the perplexity caused by the reality of suffering. It appears especially absurd when we witness the suffering of a just person, which often draws us into profound mystery. Seneca, for instance, explored this using the concept of an immanent logos (reason or divine principle) whose grounds are accessible to the human intellect.