Fundamental Concepts in Physical Science and Geology
Matter and Atomic Structure
- Matter and Space
- Material occupies space. Inertia is often cited as the cause of gravity or motion.
- Material Body
- The material body is a form of matter with defined limits, representing its own material system.
- Atoms
- Atoms are formed by a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, and an outer shell where electrons continuously spin around the core.
- Ions
- Ions are atoms that acquire a net electric charge.
- A Positive Ion (Cation) is an atom that loses electrons, acquiring a net positive charge.
- A Negative Ion (Anion) is an atom that gains an electron, acquiring a net negative charge.
- Chemical Element
- A chemical element represents all atoms belonging to the same class.
- Simple Substance
- A substance formed when atoms of the same class combine.
- Compound Substance
- A substance formed when atoms of different classes combine.
Kinematics, Dynamics, and Energy
Motion and Kinematics
- Movement (Motion)
- When a body moves, the force acting on it changes its position relative to a fixed reference point.
- Trajectory
- The geometric line describing the path of a moving object in space.
- Distance Traveled
- The distance measured along the trajectory that a moving object follows.
- Displacement
- The straight-line distance between two different positions of a moving object.
- Speed
- A measure reporting the magnitude of how rapidly bodies are moving.
Force and Work
- Force (Strength)
- Anything capable of deforming a body or changing its state of rest or motion.
- Force Representation
- Forces are represented by arrows (vectors). Line segments indicate the direction, and the arrowhead indicates the sense.
- Types of Forces
- A body can be acted upon by two different types of forces: contact forces and action-at-a-distance forces.
- Work
- Work is performed when a body moves due to the action of a force that acts, entirely or partially, in the same direction as the motion.
Energy Definitions
- Energy
- The ability of body systems or materials to transfer heat or perform work. As a system transfers heat or performs work, its energy decreases. Energy is measured in Joules (J).
- Mechanical Energy
- Bodies possess mechanical energy if they are moving at a determined speed, displaced with respect to their position of balance, or located at a certain height.
- Kinetic Energy
- The energy possessed by bodies in motion. This type of energy depends on the mass and the velocity of the moving body.
- Thermal Energy
- The average kinetic energy of a very large set of atoms or molecules.
Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics
- Temperature
- The measurement of the thermal energy of a substance.
- Heat
- The transfer of energy from a system or body at a higher temperature to another at a lower temperature.
- Thermal Equilibrium
- When two bodies or systems in thermal disequilibrium come into contact, the higher temperature system transfers heat to the lower temperature system until thermal equilibrium is achieved.
- Convection Currents
- The transmission of thermal energy produced by the ascent and descent of a fluid. Convection currents are also related to ocean breezes during the day and night due to warming differences.
Waves, Optics, and Vision
Sound Characteristics
- Intensity: Related to the loudness of the sound.
- Tone (Pitch): Related to the frequency of the wave.
- Timbre: Related to the form or the graph of the sound wave.
Light and Reflection
- Reflection of Light
- The change in direction experienced by a light beam when it strikes the surface of a body. The reflected light propagates through the same medium as the incident light beam.
- Law of Reflection
- The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection, measured relative to the normal plane (perpendicular to the surface).
Components of Vision
- Rods
- Excited by low-intensity light; they are sensitive to heat and allow for night vision.
- Cones
- Excited by intense light; they are sensitive to color and are responsible for color vision.
Geology and Earth Dynamics
Volcanic Features
Key components of a volcano include the magma chamber, chimney, volcanic crater, secondary lava flows, and ash clouds of gas.
Earthquakes and Tectonics
- Earthquake
- Sudden movements of the Earth’s layers produced by the fracture and displacement of large masses of rock in the crust.
- Epicenter
- The point on the surface where earthquakes and seismic waves originate.
Geological Structures
Important geological structures and layers include:
- Mid-ocean ridge
- Continental rift
- Continental sediments
- Continental lithosphere
- Oceanic lithosphere
- Mountain formations
- Rock fusion (melting)