From Nomos to Physis: A Journey Through Ancient Greek Philosophy
Nomos and Physis
Nomos, usually translated as “law,” held multifaceted meanings in Castilian, influenced by centuries of history and discoveries. For the Athenians, nomos encompassed legal and moral elements that were inseparable. The concept of law in a natural-scientific sense was inconceivable. Each Greek city-state possessed its unique nomos, a “patchwork of rules” governing their relations.
Physis, equivalent to “nature,” was perceived by the Greeks as the source of all reality, imbuing existence with its “nature,” including the gods. This understanding differs significantly from our modern scientific perspective.
Recognizing the declining legitimacy of nomos, most Sophists turned to physis, employing various arguments. However, a minority sought to restore and legitimize nomos. This division led to two distinct groups:
- Sophists advocating for the preservation of nomos (through physis)
- Sophists who viewed nomos as irreparably damaged
Socrates and the Dichotomy of Physis and Nomos
Socrates, belonging to the generation of Sophists, grappled with the prevailing legal-philosophical problem: the dichotomy between physis and nomos. In response to the delegitimization of nomos, Hippias of Elis proposed that the solution lay not in unwritten divine laws but in adhering to the laws of the city. Socrates, however, held an opposing view, emphasizing adherence to nomos over appealing to physis as the guiding principle for human behavior. In modern terms, Socrates could be considered a “legal positivist.” This unwavering faith in nomos, bordering on devotion, led him to risk his life on multiple occasions (e.g., the Arginusae episode).
Plato’s Dualistic Worldview
Plato, a student of Socrates and contemporary of the Sophists, witnessed the deepening crisis that the Sophists had attempted to resolve. Recognizing the limitations of Socrates’ approach, Plato developed his influential philosophy. He posited the existence of real entities in a world beyond our immediate senses, accessible only through epistemic knowledge—ideas. According to his theory, two worlds exist:
- The sensible world, our everyday reality
- The intelligible world (the supersensible), beyond our direct perception
Plato’s metaphysics is dualistic. The sensible world is secondary, as objects within it are subject to change. The intelligible world, where ideas reside, holds true importance. Accessing this world requires logos, or reason, and a demanding training period, making it exclusive to a select few.
Aristotle’s Grounding of Ideas and Teleological Structure
Aristotle sought to ground Plato’s ideas, eliminating the dualism of two worlds into one. This endeavor, however, introduced new challenges. To address these, Aristotle adopted an instrumental vocabulary, including terms like matter and form, act and potency. He proposed a teleological structure for each entity, implying a purpose and continuous movement of matter and act as potency (e.g., seed + continuous movement = tree). The only exception is God, pure thought without material residue.
Every entity, according to Aristotle, strives to achieve its inherent purpose. Humans, as “rational animals” possessing logos or nous, have a teleological structure directed towards the contemplation of truth. This attribute aligns with Telos, pure thought. Aristotle’s ethics centers on happiness (eudaimonia), achieved through the exercise of rationality (nous).
Stoic Philosophy and the Universal Law
Stoic philosophy prioritizes ethics, yet all its branches are intertwined with nomos, which holds a different meaning compared to the Sophists’ interpretation. In Stoic thought, nomos must detach from the law, referred to as “Thesis,” as it represents the “universal law.” Stoicism, while presented as an ethical force, also raises metaphysical questions. Everything aligns with nomos, which also possesses a cosmic dimension (the cosmos as a pre-determined set of bodies and their movements).
Another crucial element, predating the rational age, is oikeiosis. Humans, besides being rational, possess a body that provides a basic sense of existence, an emotional awareness of self. This is the essence of oikeiosis: self-preservation with the capacity for outward projection. The first projection encompasses blood relatives (family), followed by the city, and ultimately, all human beings, forming the concept of humanity.
The Stoics, witnessing the decline of the polis, replaced it with the concept of the “universal city,” encompassing the entire universe and integrating all human beings. The role of Universal Law is to serve as the law of this cosmopolis, with positive laws existing beneath it.