From Exploration to Union: A History of European Powers

Posted on Oct 29, 2025 in Social sciences

The Age of Exploration

Spain in the 15th and 16th Centuries

This movement in Spain during the 15th and 16th centuries was inspired by the Italian Renaissance and focused on new ideas in art, literature, and science.
The Reconquista was a period when Christian kingdoms rushed to reconquer their territories after Muslims had conquered most of Spain. It ended with the conquest of Granada in 1492.
The Alhambra Decree, issued by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella after the Reconquista, expelled Jews from Spain. Many converted or left the country, while others practiced their faith in secret.
The Spanish Inquisition was a method used by the Catholic Church and supported by the Spanish monarchy to punish blasphemy and people of different faiths.
Christopher Columbus, an explorer sponsored by Spain, made several voyages across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a direct route to Asia but instead discovered the Americas.
The Spanish Golden Age was a period of significant literary and artistic achievements in Spain, lasting from the early 16th century to the late 17th century.
The “Catholic Monarchs,” Isabella and Ferdinand, were given their title by Pope Alexander VI in 1494, establishing their authority as rulers of Spain.

Portuguese Exploration

This period marked the beginning of Portuguese power and wealth.
Portugal’s economy in the 1400s heavily relied on maritime trade.
Factors contributing to Portugal’s dominance in exploration included:
- The development of a complex maritime economy.
- Lisbon and Oporto serving as bases for merchant operations and the financing of explorations.

Spanish Exploration

Spain was a powerful country during the Age of Exploration.
Spain funded significant explorations.
Columbus’s four voyages opened the door for European exploration, colonization, and exploitation of the New World.
The Spanish conquest in the New World was driven by three main goals: Gold, Glory, and God.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade and the Middle Passage

The Transatlantic Slave Trade

This global slave trade transported enslaved Africans across the Atlantic from the 16th to the 19th centuries.
Many Africans died during the journey, known as the Middle Passage.
Enslaved Africans were treated as property to be bought and sold.
Europeans captured Africans and brought them to the Americas to be used for labor.
Enslaved people were valuable for generating wealth.
They were sold in markets and subjected to harsh, inhumane conditions.
Slavery involved the permanent domination and dehumanization of individuals.

The Journey

Of the 12 million enslaved Africans forced on the journey, an estimated 2 million did not survive.
European merchants built ships specifically designed to transport large numbers of enslaved people.
The ships had portholes for ventilation and were armed with weapons in case of rebellion. They also had compartments designed to hold human cargo.
Before boarding, Africans were stripped of their possessions, and their heads were shaved.
They were segregated by gender and age, with men often chained together in pairs.
Women were typically unchained but confined to their compartments.
Children were sometimes allowed to move freely between compartments.
Diseases, such as malaria and yellow fever, were a major cause of death during the journey.

The European Union: Formation and Development

The Journey to Union

After World War II, six Western European states sought closer economic cooperation.
They established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1950.
In 1957, they signed the Treaty of Rome, creating the European Economic Community (EEC).
The EEC later became the European Community (EC).
Spain and Portugal joined in 1986.
The Maastricht Treaty in 1992 established the Euro and renamed the organization the European Union (EU).
The EU has expanded its membership over time, with additional countries joining.

Single European Act (1985)

This Act aimed to create a single European market by 1992. It removed three main barriers:

Physical Barriers: Customs checks were scaled back at borders.
Technical Barriers: Goods that met the minimum standard in one member state were accepted in all EU countries.
Fiscal Barriers: New Value Added Tax (VAT) procedures were introduced.

Maastricht Treaty (1992)

This treaty widened the influence of the community by establishing the European Union, which was built on three pillars:
- The existing European Community
- A Common Foreign and Security Policy
- Cooperation in Justice and Home Affairs
It introduced the concept of ‘European citizenship’ for the first time.
It laid the groundwork for economic and monetary union with the creation of a single currency, the Euro, in 1999.

Deepening and Widening of the EU

The EU’s development involves two processes:

Deepening: Further integration among existing members.
Widening: Enlargement by adding new member states.

Since the Maastricht Treaty, three key developments have occurred:

Economic and Monetary Union

By 2010, the Eurozone included 16 states (up from the original 11 in 1999), though the UK opted out.
The Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) ended exchange rate uncertainty and eliminated transaction costs at borders.
However, member countries lost sovereignty over their own currency, with control passing to the European Central Bank (ECB).
The Stability and Growth Pact was designed to create budgetary discipline, but since 2008, some countries (e.g., Greece) have required bailouts.

Eastward Enlargement

Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined in 1995.
The idea of admitting 12 former Communist countries was ambitious.
The EU criteria required applicants to be liberal democracies with market economies, a standard these countries had not yet fully met.
Despite this, 10 countries joined in 2004, and two more joined in 2007.
Croatia joined in 2013.

Treaty Reform

Treaties are the highest form of law in the European Union. When they are created or reformed, the EU’s structure and scope typically change.
Key treaties include:
- 1997: Amsterdam Treaty
- 2001: Nice Treaty
- 2004: Constitutional Treaty
- 2007: Lisbon Treaty

Key Achievements of the EU

Peace: Founded to promote peace, the EU has been successful in maintaining lasting peace in Europe through alliances and cooperation.
Single Market: The EU’s single market ensures the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, providing opportunities for travel, work, and business.
Single Currency: The Eurozone, with the Euro as its currency, promotes economic growth and strengthens the EU’s international standing.
Passport-Free Travel: The Schengen Agreement allows for easy, borderless travel across many EU countries.
Foreign Aid: The EU is a significant global aid provider, accounting for half of all global aid.
Cheaper and Safer Flights: Increased competition and regulations have led to cheaper flights and improved aviation safety standards.
Democracy and Human Rights: The EU sets high standards for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law.
Equal Opportunities: The EU has taken measures to tackle discrimination and promote equal opportunities, particularly in the labor market.
Cheaper Telephone Calls: EU telecommunications liberalization has significantly reduced the cost of international calls and roaming charges.
Improved Environmental Quality: EU legislation has pressured member states to improve air and water quality and protect the environment.

Key Political Vocabulary

Accountability: Being responsible and answerable to a higher authority.
Authority: Power exercised with the consent and approval of the governed.
Constitutional Monarchy: A system where a monarch retains power but requires support from parliament. In the UK, the monarch has no direct political power.
Conventions: Unwritten rules and practices within a political system.
Executive: The branch of government responsible for proposing and implementing laws. It includes the Cabinet, Prime Minister, ministers, civil service, and local government.
Globalization: The emergence of a global economy and interconnectedness through rapid communication and transport.
Government: The body authorized to administer laws and govern the state.
Influence: The ability to shape decisions or outcomes through persuasion or pressure.
Mandate: The approval and authority given by voters to an elected party’s policies. Manifesto pledges become binding through an electoral mandate.
Parliamentary Sovereignty: The absolute and unlimited authority of Parliament, which can create, repeal, or amend any law.
Power: The ability to make others comply, even without their consent.
Representative Democracy: A system where citizens elect representatives to act on their behalf.
Rule of Law: The principle that everyone, including rulers, is subject to the same laws.
Separation of Powers: The principle that the executive, legislative, and judicial powers of government are separate and independent.
State: A permanent entity with sovereign power over a defined territory.
Unitary State: A state where sovereignty is vested in a single national institution, such as a parliament.

Political Parties and Voting Systems

First Past the Post

Commonly used in the United Kingdom, United States, and Canada.
Features one representative per constituency.
Voters choose one specific candidate.
The candidate with the most votes wins.

Alternative Vote

Used in Australia, Ireland, and Papua New Guinea.
Features one representative per constituency.
Voters rank candidates in order of preference.
A candidate with more than half of the first-preference votes wins. If no one has a majority, the candidate with the fewest votes is eliminated, and their votes are redistributed based on the second preference.

Single Transferable Vote

Used in Ireland and for Scottish local elections.
Features multiple representatives per constituency.
Voters rank candidates in order of preference.
Candidates who reach a set quota of votes are elected. Surplus votes are transferred to other candidates based on voter preferences.

Party List System

Used in elections for the European Parliament.
Features multiple representatives per constituency.
Voters choose a political party, not an individual candidate.
Seats are allocated to parties in proportion to their share of the total vote.