French Revolution: Origins and Early Stages
The Outbreak of the French Revolution (1789-1792)
The Failures of the Old Regime
In France, the Old Regime was destroyed by the French Revolution (1789-1799), which had its origins in the failures of the system:
- Social unrest: The Third Estate, which paid taxes, resented the privileged estates that scarcely paid taxes at all. The wealthy bourgeoisie was also frustrated by its lack of political power.
- The economy: A tax crisis was caused by overspending on the American Revolutionary War. Bad harvests caused rising prices in the 1760s, which led to widespread hunger and social unrest.
- The Enlightenment: The political thought of the Enlightenment encouraged people to question royal authority.
The Rise of the Third Estate
King Louis XVI’s ministers tried to introduce financial reforms, but these were strongly opposed. An Assembly of Notables, consisting of leading noblemen and ecclesiastics, rejected reforms in 1787. The king then called the Estates-General, which was an assembly of all three estates, in May 1789 at Versailles. People from all three estates presented their problems to the assembly in Lists of Grievances. In June, the representatives of the Third Estate formed a National Assembly because they considered that they were the only legitimate representatives of the French people. They swore an oath to remain assembled until France had a constitution. After that, they became known as the National Constituent Assembly.
The End of the Old Regime (1789-1791)
Opposition to the Old Regime became more radical. On 14th July 1789, the people of Paris attacked the Bastille. In rural areas, peasants participated in the Great Fear, attacking the nobles’ castles.
Following the capture of the Bastille, the National Constituent Assembly introduced a series of measures that marked the end of the Old Regime:
- On 4th August 1789, it abolished feudal rights, such as the privileges of the nobility and the taxes (or tithe) paid to the Church.
- A few days later, it published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
- In September 1791, France’s first written constitution ended royal absolutism, establishing a constitutional monarchy. Under the separation of powers, legislative power was held by the Assembly, executive power by the king, and judicial power by independent courts. Only adult males over the age of 25, and with a certain level of income, could vote in elections.
Opposition to the Constitutional Monarchy (1791-1792)
A Legislative Assembly was formed in 1791, and France now had a constitutional monarchy. However, this assembly lasted for less than a year and failed to attract much support.
Within France:
- There was fierce opposition from parts of the nobility and the clergy, who did not want to give up their privileges. Members of the formerly privileged estates emigrated and conspired against the Revolution.
- In contrast, other groups believed that the reforms did not go far enough. These radical revolutionaries were supported by the sans-culottes.
Abroad: Other European monarchs felt threatened by the ideas of the French Revolution. In 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France.