French Revolution & Napoleonic Era: Impact & Legacy
The French Revolution and Napoleonic Empire: Impact and Legacy
Foreign Policy: Napoleon extended his empire in Europe, defeating Austria, Prussia, and Russia. However, he could not defeat Britain, which he subjected to the Continental Blockade. In 1813, his troops were defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. He was banished but returned to power during the Empire of the Hundred Days. He was finally defeated at Waterloo in 1815 and exiled to St. Helena Island.
Implications of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Empire
- Disappearance of the Old Regime and the establishment of equal rights.
- The king was replaced by a constitutional monarch. Subjects were replaced by citizens.
- National sovereignty was recognized.
- Constitutions were approved, defining the rights of rulers and the ruled, and organizing state power.
- The bourgeoisie achieved political power.
- Independence movements began to emerge in Latin American colonies.
- Nationalist movements arose in occupied countries.
- New revolutionary waves spread throughout Europe during the 1820s, 1830s, and 1840s.
The Congress of Vienna and Restoration
At the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), the United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France met to restore the balance between European powers and impose monarchical legitimacy against popular sovereignty. The Holy Alliance consisted of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, while the Quadruple Alliance included Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
New Map of Europe:
- Belgium and Holland were united as the Netherlands.
- Italy was divided with an Austrian presence.
- France returned to its 1792 borders.
- The Germanic Confederation consisted of 39 German states (Austria and Prussia were prominent).
- Prussia gained the Rhineland.
Liberalism
Liberalism is a form of political thought that developed in the nineteenth century, aiming to defend individual freedom. According to liberalism, those who possessed wealth, i.e., the bourgeois class, should exercise power. Liberalism largely ignored social problems.
Liberal Principles
- National Sovereignty: Power resides in the people, represented in Parliament through an electoral system (census suffrage).
- Separation of Powers: The three branches of government should not be controlled by the same person or group.
- Enactment of a Constitution: A document that embeds the fundamental principles governing a country and protects the freedoms and rights of citizens.
- Freedoms: Citizens should have certain rights.
- Natural Rights: Rights that every human being possesses by virtue of being human and a citizen.
Liberal Revolutions
From 1820 onwards, there was a wave of revolutionary movements:
- In 1821, Greece rebelled against the Ottoman Empire and gained independence in 1829.
- In 1830, France dethroned the Bourbons and placed Louis Philippe at the head, who ruled through a constitution. The same year, Belgium became independent from the Netherlands.
Nationalism
Nationalism was born in the early nineteenth century as a sense of belonging to the same community or nation, whose members share a past, a common language, and culture. Nationalist movements took two forms:
- One sought the liberation of nations under foreign rule.
- Another stated that territories with common elements should aspire to become a nation.
The Revolutions of 1848
In 1848, there was a wave of revolutions characterized by democratic ideals or, in some cases, nationalist aspirations. The people did not believe in bourgeois liberalism, and the bourgeoisie was overwhelmed by the masses. The nationalist component prevailed in many of the revolutionary processes that shook Europe. In France, workers demanded universal suffrage.
Consequences:
- Abolition of the monarchy.
- Establishment of the Second French Republic.
- Implementation of general male suffrage.
In 1848, German and Italian states had claims:
- In the Germanic Confederation, a parliament was convened in Frankfurt to seek unification.
- In Italy, constitutions were enacted, and there were uprisings against Austrian rule.
These two revolutions ultimately failed.