French Revolution, Napoleon, and 19th Century European Transformations
Causes of the French Revolution
France faced a severe economic and social crisis. Successive crop failures led to rising prices and widespread popular discontent.
The bourgeoisie, despite their economic power, were dissatisfied with their political marginalization, as only the privileged could hope to hold public office. They aimed to end absolutism and dismantle the Ancien Régime.
The monarchy was in a deep financial crisis due to excessive spending by the court and significant financial aid provided to the United States during its War of Independence.
A proposed solution was a tax reform designed to compel the aristocracy to pay taxes, a measure they resisted.
Phases of the French Revolution
- Constitutional Monarchy: Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie, who sought an agreement with the King and the privileged classes to dismantle the old regime and establish liberalism.
- Democratic Republic: Driven by the radical bourgeoisie and popular sectors, who aimed for a more egalitarian transformation of society.
- Bourgeois Republic: Signified a return to power for the conservative bourgeoisie, establishing the dominance of property owners.
Napoleon Bonaparte’s Rise to Power
Napoleon was appointed First Consul, and his government policies consolidated the achievements of the bourgeois revolution. He prevented the return of absolutism and removed the most radical elements from power.
He signed a Concordat with the Church, which helped restore religious peace in France.
He implemented a centralized administrative reform, creating prefects who enforced government orders in the provinces.
The Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) was enacted, unifying the legal system. Reforms were also made to finance and the education system.
Napoleonic Conquests and Empire
Napoleon defeated the absolute monarchs of Europe who had united their armies to fight against revolutionary France.
He succeeded in conquering much of Europe; his empire stretched from Spain to Germany, excluding Britain.
In all countries under French influence, he placed family members or generals on the throne, and revolutionary ideas were imposed.
The Fall of Napoleon’s Empire
Napoleon’s armies increasingly acted as conquerors, prioritizing France’s material interests over revolutionary ideals. This led to the eruption of nationalist sentiments in occupied territories against the French invaders.
Ironically, the French ideals of freedom became the ideological basis for patriots who opposed the French presence.
The uprising against the French invasion in Spain was a pivotal moment, marking the beginning of the end for the Napoleonic Empire. After being defeated in Russia and Spain, Napoleon abdicated. He was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and exiled to the island of St. Helena, where he died.
The Congress of Vienna and European Restoration
The victorious states against Napoleon gathered at the Congress of Vienna.
Russia, Britain, Prussia, and Austria collectively remodeled the European map.
The decisions of the Congress of Vienna were supplemented by the Holy Alliance, a treaty of mutual aid among European monarchs against any liberal revolution. To maintain order, they met regularly in conferences.
Despite these efforts, the ideas of the French Revolution, particularly liberalism and nationalism, became powerful opposing forces to the Restoration era.
Understanding Liberalism
Liberalism is a political ideology centered on the individual. It asserts that the State must guarantee the rights and freedoms of its people. The free individual is considered a citizen, and the collective body of citizens forms the nation, which holds sovereignty.
It advocates for a representative system where decisions emanate from an elected Parliament. This Parliament creates laws and ensures the division of powers to prevent any single entity from becoming absolute.
Understanding Nationalism
Nationalism is a political ideology that supports the right of peoples to govern themselves and defend their sovereignty. A nation is defined as a group of individuals who share distinct cultural ties and desire to live together as a unified entity.
This ideology expanded significantly throughout the 19th century, leading to numerous independence movements.
The Spring of Nations (1848 Revolutions)
In Western Europe, the Revolutions of 1848 marked the emergence of democratic ideals, including: universal suffrage, popular sovereignty, social equity, and the recognition of workers as a significant political force.
A popular uprising in France ended the monarchy of Louis Philippe of Orleans, leading to the proclamation of the Social Republic and universal male suffrage.
In Eastern Europe, the struggle was primarily against absolutist regimes and Austrian imperial domination. The revolts had a liberal character in Vienna and a strong nationalist character in Hungary, Bohemia, Northern Italy, and the Germanic Confederation, as these regions rose against the empires.