French Revolution: Key Stages and European Restoration
The French Revolution: A Timeline of Key Events
1. Estates-General to National Constituent Assembly (1789)
France faced a political, social, and economic crisis due to the absolute monarchy, the unequal estate system, and poor harvests leading to increased bread prices. The French state was in dire financial straits. In 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General. The Third Estate, representing 96% of the population, was granted as many delegates as the nobility and clergy combined.
National Constituent Assembly
When the King refused individual voting, the Third Estate deputies declared themselves the National Assembly. On July 14, 1789, they stormed the Bastille, a symbol of royal authority, marking the start of the popular revolution. The National Assembly became the National Constituent Assembly and began drafting a constitution for France.
The Assembly took action to end the Ancien Régime, abolishing the estate system, passing the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, and enacting the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
2. Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
The Constitution was adopted in September 1791, establishing France as a constitutional monarchy with voting rights and separation of powers. Louis XVI reluctantly accepted the document. European monarchs, fearing for their thrones, formed the First Coalition against revolutionary France. In August 1792, the people attacked the Tuileries Palace, and the royal family was arrested.
3. The Convention (1792-1795)
Louis XVI was condemned to death and executed in 1793. The new republic was governed by the National Convention, divided between the Girondins (representing the upper bourgeoisie) and the Jacobins (supported by the middle bourgeoisie). The more moderate Girondins initially held control, but the period became known as the Reign of Terror. The Jacobins produced the first republican constitution.
4. The Directory (1795-1799)
In 1794, a coup d’état led to the execution of Robespierre. The first half of 1795 saw reprisals against leaders and supporters of the previous period, known as the First White Terror. The Constitution of 1795 established a new government called the Directory, which faced numerous domestic problems. During these conflicts, a young general named Napoleon Bonaparte distinguished himself.
5. The Consulate (1799-1804)
In 1799, a coup d’état ended the Directory. Napoleon, Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, and Pierre-Roger Ducos governed as the Consulate, with Napoleon elected First Consul for life. Napoleon’s government established the Napoleonic Code, replacing the Ancien Régime‘s legislation. Careers were opened to talent, allowing the bourgeoisie to become top officials, and police actions were organized to prevent civil unrest.
6. The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe (1814-1815)
The states that defeated Napoleon met at the Congress of Vienna to reorganize Europe. They formed the Concert of Europe (or Congress System) to maintain power and restore the Ancien Régime. The thrones of France and Spain were returned to the House of Bourbon, the great powers formed alliances, and the political map of Europe was redrawn.
Glossary
- Grievance: Cause for complaint
- Seigneurial: Related to the feudal system
- Tithe: 10% of produce or income given to the church
- Breeches: Short men’s trousers that stop below the knee
- Petty Bourgeoisie: Lower middle class
- Unrest: Dissatisfaction and demonstrations
- Behalf: In the interest of a person, group, or principle
- Sweep Away: To abolish