French Revolution: Causes, Stages, and Impact
The French Revolution
Causes of the Revolution
In 1789, France faced a profound economic and social crisis. Poor harvests since 1760 caused rising food prices and popular discontent. The bourgeoisie, enriched by economic growth, were dissatisfied with their political marginalization. Only the privileged could hold office and enjoy social recognition. The bourgeoisie aimed to end absolutism and the entire system of the Old Regime. The monarchy faced a deep financial crisis due to high spending, including aid to the United States. A state tax reform was proposed, requiring the aristocracy to pay taxes, but the monarch feared displeasing the privileged.
The Revolution Begins
The revolution began with a revolt of the aristocracy, who refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates-General. The Estates-General opened in 1789, presided over by the king and formed by representatives of the nobility, the clergy, and the Third Estate. The Third Estate demanded double representation and votes by individual, embodying the idea of National Sovereignty. The monarch and part of the nobility only accepted double representation. The deputies of the Third Estate gathered in a Paris pavilion and formed the National Assembly.
The End of the Old Regime
The people of Paris supported the Third Estate. Fearing arrest by royal troops, they stormed the Bastille, armed themselves, and prepared to defend the revolutionary process. The revolution spread to the countryside as an anti-seigneurial revolt, involving the burning of manor houses and destruction of manorial documents.
Stages of the Revolution
- Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792): Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie, who hoped to reach an agreement with the king and the privileged to abolish the Old Regime.
- Democratic Republic (1792-1794): Driven by the radical bourgeoisie and popular sectors, who desired a deeper transformation of society into a democratic and egalitarian one.
- Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799): Marked a return to power of the conservative bourgeoisie, consecrating the dominance of property owners.
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
The Reform Process
France became a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. The 1791 Constitution exemplified the ideals of political liberalism (separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality of citizens). It established census-based indirect suffrage. To solve the financial crisis, church property was expropriated, declared national property, and sold. A civil constitution of the clergy separated church and state.
Different Political Opinions
The reforms satisfied bourgeois groups, granting them political rights and economic liberty. The new regime had many opponents: the nobility wanted to recover their privileges, the clergy were discontent with the confiscation, and the monarchy plotted to overthrow the assembly.
1820-1848 Revolutions
1820
Liberal uprisings, led mostly by military activists, tried to break absolutism in various countries but were defeated by the Holy Alliance. Only Greece, with a strong liberal movement, triumphed against the Ottoman Empire.
1830
A second revolutionary wave occurred in Western and Central Europe. With popular support, it replaced absolutism with constitutional systems, bringing the bourgeoisie to power. This conservative liberalism was based on census suffrage and restricted civil liberties. Starting in France, the revolution overthrew Charles X of Bourbon and established a liberal system.
1848
In Western Europe, the 1848 revolution introduced democratic ideals: universal suffrage, popular sovereignty, social equality, and the emergence of workers as a political force. A popular uprising ended the monarchy of Louis-Philippe d’Orléans, and a republic with universal suffrage was proclaimed. The struggle was mainly against absolutist regimes and Austrian imperial domination.
Unification of Italy and Germany
Italy
Italy was divided into six states. The Pope ruled one, with its capital in Rome, and Austria had annexed Lombardy and Veneto. Cavour, the Piedmontese leader, waged war against Austria and annexed Lombardy.
Germany
Germany was divided into 36 states. The main problem was the rivalry between Prussia and Austria. Prussia led the unification, creating a customs union that included all German states except Austria.