French Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Rise of Napoleon
Phases of the French Revolution
Given the need for fiscal reform, the king was forced to convene the Estates General to seek approval for new taxes. The Third Estate claimed the individual vote, not by estates. From this time, the revolution broke out and developed in several phases:
- The National Assembly and Revolts (1789): The Third Estate abandoned the Estates General and formed the National Assembly to give France a constitution.
- The Constituent Assembly (1789-1791): Its goal was to create a constitution. Dominated by the more moderate political group (Girondins), feudal privileges were abolished, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted, enshrining principles such as equality. It also adopted a Constitution (1791), stating that sovereignty resided in the people, transitioning to a constitutional monarchy. The nobility and the King sought support from countries with absolute monarchies, such as Austria and Prussia, who opposed the revolution. France declared war in 1792. French troops stopped the Prussian army, and the monarchs were arrested.
- The French Republic and the War (1792-1795): The new assembly abolished the monarchy and proclaimed a republic. In 1793, the king was executed on charges of treason. That same year, a democratic constitution was adopted. It was the beginning of the triumph of the revolutionary Jacobins, supported by the sans-culottes. The republic faced opposition from the aristocracy, who rejected this form of government. To control the situation, the regime became a dictatorship where anyone suspected of opposing the republic could be executed. This stage, known as The Terror, was led by Robespierre. However, the serious economic situation and general fatigue at the increase in executions led to a coup that overthrew the Jacobins. Robespierre himself was guillotined.
Causes of the French Revolution
- Economic: As of 1760, a financial crisis was caused by war debt from the Seven Years’ War. The economic problems were compounded by government expenditures (luxury of the court, maintaining the military). At the same time, poor harvests in 1788 and 1789 caused the price of bread to rise to levels unaffordable for farmers and the lower classes, provoking strong riots.
- Social: Finance ministers of Louis XVI attempted to reduce the debt by raising taxes and extending them to the privileged classes. However, they refused and foiled any attempt at fiscal reform. The bourgeoisie wanted access to political power and used popular groups to achieve their ends.
- Political-Ideological: The ideas of the Enlightenment provided the foundation needed to eliminate the Old Regime. Furthermore, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies of America showed that it was possible to carry out those ideas.
The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte (1795-1804)
After the fall of Robespierre, the Thermidorian Convention ruled. Other countries saw France as a threat and continued the war against it. The Thermidorian Convention was replaced by a Directory, with the military support of Napoleon Bonaparte. He leveraged the prestige acquired by his military victories in Europe and collaborated in the coup d’état of November 9, 1799. As a result, three consuls seized power, with Napoleon as the principal consul.