French Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Legacy
Causes of the Revolution
In 1789, France was in crisis. An economic and social crisis, starting with the crop failures of the 1760s, showed the financial weakness of the state. The bourgeoisie was politically marginalized; the privileged classes could hold office and enjoy social recognition, but the bourgeoisie sought to end absolutism and the entire system of the Old Regime.
The French Revolution began with a revolt of the aristocracy. The privileged refused to pay taxes and requested that King Louis XVI convene the Estates-General. The Estates-General opened in Versailles in 1789, represented by the king, the nobility, the clergy, and the Third Estate. The Third Estate demanded double representation, joint deliberation, and voting by person. They convened in a pavilion, establishing the National Assembly, representing the nation and committed to preparing a constitution that would reflect the end of the French Ancien Regime.
The people supported the Third Estate. On June 14th, they stormed the Bastille, took weapons, and defended the revolutionary process. Many armed noble residences and manor documents were destroyed. The National Assembly approved the abolition of feudal privileges and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
Articles 5 and 11: Tithes and censuses were abolished; all citizens were allowed into the workforce.
Phases of the Revolution
Constitutional Monarchy (1789-1792)
Supported by the conservative bourgeoisie, who aspired to negotiate with the king and the privileged to abolish the Old Regime and impose liberalism.
Democratic Republic (1792-1794)
Driven by the radical bourgeoisie and popular sectors, who desired a deeper transformation towards a democratic society and a per capita republic.
Bourgeois Republic (1794-1799)
A return to power of the conservative bourgeoisie, who enshrined the predominance of property owners.
Constitutional Monarchy: In 1789, the king and the nobility accepted the situation, and the National Assembly began the process of converting France into a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. In 1791, a constitution was promulgated that exemplified the ideals of political liberalism: separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality for citizens, although it reserved the right of veto for the crown. It established indirect and census-based suffrage.
The Republic was proclaimed, and the Girondin Convention called for early elections by universal male suffrage for the new National Convention. Louis XVI and his wife were put on trial, accused of treason. The killings provoked an alliance between the European monarchies, who formed a coalition against revolutionary France. In 1793, counterrevolutionary armies invaded France.
Jacobin Convention: In 1793, the Jacobins seized power and enacted a new constitution based on social democracy: popular sovereignty, universal suffrage, and the right to equality. Executive power was in the hands of the Committee of Public Safety, which concentrated all power in Robespierre. To respond to the demands of the sans-culottes, the committee passed a law of maximum, controlling wages and prices.
The Fall of the Jacobins: In 1794, due to the opposition of much of the population, a coup d’état took place. After that, the conservative bourgeoisie regained control of the revolution.
From Consul to Emperor: Napoleon
Napoleon’s government policy consolidated the achievements of the bourgeois revolution. A Civil Code was enacted, which rationalized and unified all previous laws. In 1804, Napoleon proclaimed himself emperor.
The Conquest: Napoleon defeated the European absolute monarchs who had coalesced their armies to fight France.
The Fall of Napoleon: After being defeated in Russia and Spain, Napoleon relinquished power. He returned in 1815 but was defeated at Waterloo and exiled to the island of Saint Helena, where he died in 1821.
Restoration
After Napoleon’s defeat, states met at the Congress of Vienna, where they sought to restore monarchical absolutism. The four powers (Russia, Prussia, the United Kingdom, and Austria) remodeled the map of Europe. The decisions were completed with the Holy Alliance between the kings.