French Revolution: Causes, Events & Radical Change
The French Revolution: A Turning Point
In 1789, a historical process developed in France that destroyed the economic and social foundations of the Old Regime and eliminated the absolute monarchy. The ideas that drove the French Revolution influenced subsequent liberal and socialist revolutionary movements.
Seeds of Revolt: Pre-Revolutionary France
France was a country grappling with significant social conflict and a monarchical state in crisis. The French state suffered from a severe financial crisis, spending much more than it received and accumulating substantial debt. The monarchy’s prime ministers failed to compel the privileged classes to pay outstanding taxes and fees. Instead, they demanded a meeting of the Estates-General, medieval assemblies where the three estates (clergy, nobility, and commoners) met separately.
The Spark: Revolution Ignites in 1789
In the spring of 1789, elections for the representatives of the Third Estate, who were to attend the Estates-General, were held across France. Voters from all three estates provided their representatives with lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances) and claims to be presented at the meeting. The Third Estate refused to accept the unfavorable voting conditions (voting by order rather than by head). Fearing that royal power intended to dissolve the Estates-General, its representatives moved to a nearby indoor tennis court (Jeu de Paume). There, along with some members of the clergy, they took the Tennis Court Oath, swearing \”never to separate and to meet wherever circumstances might require until the constitution of the kingdom is established.\”
Early Revolutionary Actions and Uprisings
A popular uprising began in the streets of Paris. On July 14, 1789, the crowd, seeking arms and gunpowder, stormed the Bastille, a royal fortress and prison, symbolizing monarchical tyranny. The revolution spread, leading to the formation of new municipal councils. The countryside was simultaneously rocked by an agrarian revolt known as the Great Fear (Grande Peur), where peasants attacked and destroyed castles, manorial records, and other symbols of feudal nobility. Personal servitude and tithes were abolished without compensation, and manorial courts (justices seigneuriales) were also eliminated. The National Assembly issued decrees, the final text of which famously began: \”The National Assembly completely destroys the feudal system.\” Figures like Mirabeau proclaimed the principles of liberty, equality among men, and national sovereignty.
Moderate Phase: The Constitution of 1791
This stage established a constitutional monarchy based on the separation of powers, as outlined in the Constitution of 1791. The king retained limited executive power, while the newly formed National Assembly (specifically, the Legislative Assembly under this constitution) held all legislative power. A censitary electoral system was established, meaning voting rights were based on property qualifications. The Constituent Assembly abolished indirect taxes and instituted a system of direct taxation. Church property was nationalized to be sold, and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy established that bishops and priests would be elected and receive their salaries from the state. The dissolution of all religious convents was also agreed upon.
Political Factions: The Legislative Assembly
Within the Legislative Assembly and broader revolutionary society, various political clubs emerged, representing different interests and ideologies:
- The Jacobins: Initially moderate, they became increasingly radical. Dominated by figures like Maximilien Robespierre, they were one of the most influential revolutionary clubs.
- The Cordeliers: Positioned to the left of the Jacobins, they held more radical political stances, advocating for universal male suffrage (i.e., the right of all male citizens to vote and participate in politics) and demanding the establishment of a republic. Key figures included Danton and Marat.
- The Girondins: Representing more moderate republicanism, they initially dominated the Legislative Assembly. They defended census suffrage, were wary of Parisian radicalism, and supported a policy of spreading the revolution through war, though they later clashed with the more radical Jacobins.