French Revolution: Causes, Events, and Napoleon’s Rise
Definitions
- Sans-culottes: Appeared in France during the French Revolution. They were workers from the lower social classes, known for being the most radical group in France.
- Jacobins: Emerged at the end of the 18th century. They were a radical bourgeoisie, known for their radicalism and centralism.
- Terror: A period during the Convention, marked by Jacobins taking action against the moderate bourgeoisie and absolutists.
Causes of the French Revolution
Cultural Causes
- Liberal ideas criticizing absolutism and the three-estates society were increasingly widespread.
- The successful example of the United States.
Political Causes
- Inequality before the law: the privileged were exempted from paying taxes, which led to unrest in the Third Estate.
- Continued rise of the bourgeoisie, claiming political power. They were wealthy but had no political power.
Economic Causes
- Economic crisis that created a huge public debt (caused by defeat in the Seven Years’ War, intervention in the American War of Independence, and despite this, the court did not diminish its luxuries).
- Food crisis: more than a decade of bad harvests, with the 1788 harvest being the worst of the century.
Social Causes
- Political turmoil and social unrest generated demands that were recorded in the Book of Grievances.
States General
Convening of Parliament represented by the estates. Its objective was to solve France’s economic hole, the treasury’s bankrupt. The proposal was “Here we all pay,” meaning the rich would pay taxes.
Results: The voting system was rigged. The Third Estate created an assembly on its own, the National Assembly (Paris), with the goal of creating a constitution.
Constituent Assembly
The countryside experienced great fear. In Paris, the Storming of the Bastille occurred (July 14, 1789). The sans-culottes belonged to the poorest social groups in Paris and were characterized by their political radicalism during the French Revolution.
Reforms:
- Abolition of feudal privileges.
- Censitary suffrage.
- Direct and universal taxation.
- Drafting of the Constitution of 1791.
- Constitutional monarchy (division of powers).
- Executive power held by the King.
Louis XVI wanted to put an end to the new regime, but the other kings feared an expansion into Europe. He fled to Varennes, where he was discovered, captured, and taken back to Paris.
Legislative Assembly
It was the dissolution and formation of a new assembly, the Legislative Assembly. Political groups were defined:
- Girondins (moderates, federalists, parliamentary monarchy).
- Jacobins (radicals, centralists, and republicans).
The absolutist powers (Austria and Prussia) defeated the revolutionary army and approached Paris.
The sans-culottes stormed the Tuileries Palace, arresting the King and proclaiming the Republic. New elections were held once the King (executive power) was imprisoned.
Convention
Military victories pushed the front away from Paris. The Jacobins took power from the Convention. One of its first measures was the trial and execution of Louis XVI.
New in-depth measures:
- Committees for the tasks of government.
- Abolition of slavery.
- Laws in support of the sans-culottes.
- Draft of an advanced constitution.
This was the time of the “Terror.” The Committee of Public Health was created, led by Robespierre. Persecution of all those considered to be counter-revolutionaries.
Directory
Drafting of a constitution more restrictive in rights and liberties.
Unresolved problems:
- Permanent war.
- Monarchist and popular rebellions.
New coup: 18th Brumaire of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Consulate (Napoleon Bonaparte)
The Consulate was the new form of government, with three people ruling France. It was an authoritarian model. Continuous victories abroad and stability at home led to the question, “Why not assume all power?”. Napoleon was crowned Emperor at the request of Parliament, gaining legitimacy from the representatives of the Revolution.
Napoleon’s Empire
It was seen at first as a disseminator of liberal ideas. However, he ended up associated with authoritarianism and tyranny. His initial project was to spread the Revolution to Europe. His main enemy was England. The impossibility of invasion led to the Continental Blockade. His requests led to high control over much of Europe, but he suffered defeats at both edges: Russia and the War of Independence of Spain. Finally, he was defeated by England in 1815.