French Revolution: Absolutism to Constitutional Monarchy
Absolutism and its Transformations
Absolutism: In the late seventeenth century, political transformations began in Holland and England, limiting the power of the absolute monarchy. Simultaneously, enlightened ideas led to reform experiences known as enlightened despotism in many countries.
Causes of the French Revolution
The causes of the revolution: By 1789, France faced a deep economic and social crisis. Poor harvests since 1760 caused rising food prices and widespread discontent.
The Beginning of the Revolution
The beginning of the Revolution: The French Revolution started with a revolt by the privileged aristocracy who refused to pay taxes and demanded that Louis XVI convene the Estates-General, the only body that could pass tax reform.
The Estates-General opened at Versailles in May 1789, presided over by the king and consisting of representatives of the nobility, the clergy, and the Third Estate. Traditionally, each estate had the same number of deputies, deliberated separately, and had a single vote. The representatives of the Third Estate demanded double representation and a joint vote per person, as they were the majority.
This question was crucial: at stake was the idea of national sovereignty, meaning that all deputies of the Estates-General represented the will of the nation. The monarch and nobility only accepted dual representation. On June 20, the deputies of the Third Estate met in a pavilion in Paris (Jeu de Paume), declared themselves the National Assembly (representatives of the nation), and committed to developing a constitution reflecting the majority’s will.
The End of the Old Regime
The end of Old Regime: The people of Paris supported the representatives of the Third Estate. Fearing that royal troops would detain members, on July 14, they stormed the Bastille fortress, seized arms, and prepared to defend the revolutionary process by force. The revolution spread to the countryside as an anti-seigneurial revolt (Great Fear), involving the burning of houses and noble mansions and the destruction of documents.
Amid popular radicalism, the National Constituent Assembly decreed the abolition of feudal privileges on August 4 and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, recognizing inalienable individual and collective freedoms, as well as equality before the law and taxation.
The Constitutional Monarchy and Reform
The constitutional monarchy – the reform process: In the fall of 1789, the king and nobility accepted the new situation. Once the country was pacified, the National Assemblies initiated reforms to convert France into a constitutional and parliamentary monarchy. In 1791, they promulgated a constitution exemplifying the ideals of political liberalism: separation of powers, national sovereignty, and legal equality of citizens, although the crown retained veto power.
Indirect suffrage was established based on census, dividing citizens into active citizens, who possessed a certain wealth and had the right to vote, and passive citizens, who lacked political fortune. Following the approval of the constitutional text, a legislative assembly was formed, which drafted new legislation to guarantee equality for all citizens, prohibiting torture, forced taxes, and abolishing nobility guilds. To defend the gains of the revolution against the defenders of absolutism, a new army (national guard) was created.