Franco’s Spain: Repression, Transformation, and Decline (1939-1975)
IV. The Suppression of Opposition
After the Civil War, Franco’s regime implemented a policy of terror, including executions and imprisonment, to eliminate opposition and ensure its survival. This repression was systematic and targeted groups like Freemasons and Communists, leading to the enactment of laws such as the Suppression of Freemasonry and Communism. A law of political responsibility was also enacted, allowing the regime to remove individuals suspected of disloyalty from their professions. The media was strictly controlled by the Printing and Publishing Act, with all broadcasters required to connect to Spain’s national radio and disseminate censored information. Many fled into exile in France, Mexico, and the USSR. During the war, the maquis attempted guerrilla warfare but were defeated by the Civil Guard in the 1950s. A monarchist opposition, led by D. Juan de Borbón, emerged, as evidenced by his Louisiana Manifesto (1945) calling for Franco’s resignation and the restoration of the monarchy. However, after meeting with Franco in 1948, Don Juan agreed to send his son, Juan Carlos of Spain, to be trained under Franco’s supervision. Despite the lack of freedoms, underground opposition forces (socialist, communist, and nationalist) organized. The Munich conspiracy of 1962 saw opposition groups discuss the need for European countries to demand democratization. The labor movement, including the communist trade union CCOO, radicalized throughout the 1960s. Sectors of the church also became critical, with priests embracing the reforms of the Second Vatican Council and worker-priests organizing in working-class neighborhoods. Basque nationalism radicalized with the emergence of ETA in 1959. The University became a center of protest, demanding freedoms and democratic reforms. The regime responded with continued repression. Throughout its existence, the elimination of all opposition remained a constant.
V. The Construction and Development of the Regime
1. The War and the Construction of the Regime (1939-1950)
This period was marked by significant hardships for the Spanish population. During World War II, Franco collaborated with Germany. After the defeat of the Axis powers, Spain faced international pressure and isolation, exacerbating the devastation of the Civil War. Franco’s regime implemented an autarkic economic policy, leading to years of scarcity, rationing, and the black market. The period from the Civil War until 1945 is known as the Blue Period, characterized by harsh repression against Republicans. Post-war years were marked by shortages, food rationing, and the use of ration cards. The lack of supplies fueled the black market. Many vulnerable individuals (widows, orphans, and the elderly) relied on Social Distress for survival. The authorities imposed strict public morality based on conservative principles influenced by the Church. The end of World War II was a critical moment. The lack of democratic freedoms and Franco’s pro-fascist stance led to international condemnation and isolation. France closed its border, and UN Resolution 1946 accused Franco’s regime of fascism and recommended that member states:
- Prohibit Spain’s membership in international organizations related to the UN.
- Withdraw all ambassadors from Spain.
2. The End of Autocracy and the Consolidation of the Regime (1951-1959)
In the 1950s, the international scene changed as the fight against fascism gave way to the Cold War. With U.S. backing, the regime began to gain recognition and emerge from isolation. Franco’s anti-communist stance and Spain’s strategic military value became important. The UN embargo was reversed, and ambassadors were exchanged. The Concordat with the Vatican was signed, granting Franco endorsement in exchange for making Catholicism the official religion. Spain signed the Convention of Friendship and Cooperation with the U.S., a military and economic agreement that granted the U.S. use of military bases in exchange for economic aid and recognition. In 1955, Spain joined the UN.
3. Development (1959-1973)
In the early 1960s, the inclusion of technocrats (members of Opus Dei) in the government led to a shift in economic policy, initiating a period of accelerated development through the Stabilization Plan and Development Plans, including the creation of “development poles.” This triggered profound economic and social changes, transforming traditional rural Spain. Industrial growth was spectacular, leading to the so-called “Spanish miracle.” Spain became one of the 12 most industrialized countries. Along with the Stabilization Plan and Development Plans, three factors contributed to national development: Tourism became the leading national industry, boosting construction and the tertiary sector. It also led to social changes with the arrival of foreigners. Migration, encouraged by the government, saw workers leaving rural Spain for European countries like Germany, Switzerland, and France. This alleviated unemployment and stabilized the economy through remittances. The technical training received abroad also benefited Spain upon the migrants’ return. The entry of foreign capital, mainly in chemical industries, trade, and catering, provided technological advancements. The opening to the outside world and social prosperity led to increasing calls for democratic freedoms. However, the regime refused to evolve politically.
4. End of the Regime (1973-1975)
The 1973 oil crisis and international economic downturn worsened the regime’s situation. Internal divisions emerged between innovators (favoring openness) and hardliners (“bunker”). Opposition strengthened, including ETA’s terrorist actions (assassination of Prime Minister Carrero Blanco) and other extremist groups. Franco’s advanced age and poor health also contributed to instability. International relations suffered after the execution of five terrorists, leading to the withdrawal of ambassadors from some countries. Spain remained the last dictatorship in Western Europe. The situation was further complicated by Franco’s deteriorating health and the Sahara issue, with Morocco claiming the territory and organizing the “Green March.” The Spanish government, lacking UN support and under U.S. pressure, signed the Treaty of Madrid. On November 20, 1975, Franco died, and with him, his regime.
VI. Conclusions
The Franco regime was an authoritarian political system in Spain from the Nationalist victory in the Civil War until Franco’s death in 1975. Its duration was tied to the personality of Franco, head of state with extensive powers and Generalissimo of the Armies. Socially, it had the support of the Church, the oligarchy, the military, and the politically engaged middle classes. Franco did not establish an authoritarian state to reject democracy; he abolished political parties and refrained from enacting a constitution. Instead, he issued a series of fundamental laws defining the undemocratic and autocratic principles of his nearly 40-year rule. The regime evolved according to changing international conditions but without renouncing its core principles: The establishment of “organic democracy,” the creation of a centralized, religious, anti-traditional state, and the maintenance of its identity: nacionalcatolicismo, nacionalpatriotismo, and national syndicalism.