Francoism’s Final Years: Spain’s Transition to Democracy
The Crisis of Late Francoism
After the Civil War ended, it gave way to Franco’s dictatorship. In the 1940s, Spain was isolated due to its alignment with Italian fascists and German Nazis, leading the regime to pursue an autarky policy. In the 1950s, however, pacts with the Vatican and the USA led to international recognition.
Economic Reforms and Social Shifts
The Stabilization Plan of 1959, led by the Technocrats (ministers of Opus Dei), embraced capitalist and liberal ideas, pursuing economic goals even at the expense of Spanish inhabitants’ welfare. Key objectives included the reduction of public spending and the liberalization of the labor market. Due to economic development and the influx of European tourists, anti-Francoist sentiment grew. Spanish inhabitants experienced significant social changes, including improved economic welfare and a changing role for women, fostering new ideas.
Growing Opposition and Political Repression
Even though economic shifts occurred, political repression continued. Opposition included:
- Empowered workers’ movements
- Increased university student protests
- The Church distanced itself from Francoism
- Some army officers began to voice dissent against the regime
Significant political opposition also emerged from events like the Congress of Munich, the rise of nationalist ideas in the Basque Country, and the creation of ultra-leftist armed groups.
The Organic Law and International Relations
The Organic Law of the State (1967), a pseudo-constitution approved by referendum, was a key attempt to institutionalize the regime. Its main provision was the division of power into the Head of State (Franco) and the Head of Government (Carrero Blanco).
Despite its successful agreements with the USA and the Vatican, an international blockade persisted. Europe barred Spain from entering the newly formed European Economic Community (EEC), rejecting the dictatorship and demanding the adoption of democratic principles as a prerequisite for membership talks.
The Final Years and Transition
The 1970s Crisis was marked by internal division between Inmovilistas (hardliners) and Aperturistas (reformers), the Burgos Trial, and the 1973 global oil crisis. Due to Franco’s declining health, Carrero Blanco was appointed Head of Government, but he was assassinated just two months after his appointment. Franco died in 1975, ushering in what is known as the Spanish Transition to democracy.
Political Violence: Causes and Consequences
Roots of Violence Under Franco
During Franco’s dictatorship, repression was the primary method for addressing dissent. While repression continued, the economic improvements of the 1960s and 1980s inadvertently led to better organization among opposition groups.
Emergence of Armed Groups
Ultra-leftist armed and violent groups were created, such as ETA in 1959, FRAP in 1971, and GRAPO in 1975. The emergence of these groups was influenced by the global political climate, including the May 1968 protests, the Cuban Revolution, and the Algerian War of Independence. Similar leftist violent groups emerged across Europe, such as the Red Brigades in Italy. The regime’s response was heightened repression, exemplified by the killings of Txiki and Otaegi, and the creation of right-wing armed groups like Guerrilleros Cristo Rey, Triple A, or Batallón Vasco Español. Even after the dictatorship ended, police forces, such as the Guardia Civil, remained loyal to Franco’s regime, actively attempting to undermine the transition to democracy.
The Transition Era: Escalating Tensions
For leftist and nationalist organizations, the transition was perceived as too weak, as it avoided addressing key issues like the role of the Church or the right to self-determination. Conversely, elements within the old regime sought to derail or complicate the transition. The transition was characterized by immense political tension between its proponents and those who either sought radical change or actively opposed it.
In this context, the territorial issue became a critical concern in regions like Catalonia and the Basque Country. Nationalist parties demanded their historical rights. For groups like ETA, for instance, a primary objective was the establishment of the right to self-determination.
Additionally, the 1973 crisis sparked widespread protests that were met with severe repression. Trade unions and workers united to demand their rights. In this context, there was a delicate balance between addressing regional demands and upholding democratic principles.
The Impact of Violence
Violence was a defining feature of the transition, alongside intense political tension. Francoist violence, such as that perpetrated by Cristo Rey and Batallón Vasco Español, and ultra-leftist armed groups like ETA, undermined the legitimacy of the democratic transition due to differing perceptions. Police forces were also seen as a significant impediment to advancing the democratic political system.
Political polarization intensified, and the territorial issue became a major point of contention among Spanish nationalist parties. The Amnesty Law of 1977 granted impunity for Francoist violence, fostering a sense of impunity among perpetrators and frustrating those who fought for democracy. The 1980s became known as the ‘Lead Years’ (Berunezko urteak), marked by assassinations, kidnappings, and revolutionary attacks. The Spanish government reacted by engaging in a ‘dirty war’ through groups like the GAL.
Unresolved Issues
While some issues have been addressed, many violence-related problems remain unresolved, such as the precise definition of victims or the lasting consequences of terrorism from all sides.
Francoism in the Basque Country: Economic & Social Dynamics
The autarkic economic situation presented a significant opportunity for Basque products to enter the Spanish market. The characteristics of the Basque Country’s industry included:
- Concentration in Gipuzkoa and Vizcaya.
- A strong base and influence from heavy industry, including steel, metallurgy, shipbuilding, and chemicals.
However, there was a lack of competitiveness due to reduced internal competition and the weakness of the third sector. This also had a negative side, stemming from a lack of technology and a dependence on foreign technology. Energy consumption was high, and pollution spread throughout industrial areas.
Social Transformation and Cultural Revival
However, the 1973 worldwide economic crisis halted economic growth. This economic growth also spurred significant social changes. The workers’ movement grew in strength and organization, leading to the creation of LAB and numerous strikes. Student protests also began.
The role of women also changed; for instance, they entered the labor market, leading to a broader shift in social habits, particularly in urban areas. Furthermore, Basque culture began to re-emerge actively in society: Ikastolas (Basque-language schools) were established, Basque organizations like Euskaltzaindia were promoted, and music and theater groups like Ez Dok Amairu and artistic groups like GAUR (featuring Oteiza, Chillida, etc.) were formed, alongside a resurgence in literature with figures such as Gabriel Celaya and Martín Ugalde.