France 1789: Social Tensions & Revolutionary Dawn
France in 1789: An Absolute Monarchy
In 1789, France, under King Louis XVI, was an absolute monarchy and one of Europe’s wealthiest and most powerful nations. Under the Ancien Régime, the king shared power and prerogatives with the first two privileged classes, or estates: the nobility and the clergy.
The Privileged Estates: Nobility and Clergy
The nobility, the Second Estate, by heritage from medieval times, owned vast lands and held the highest positions in the church, government, and army. Their most significant privilege was tax exemption; instead, they collected taxes from peasants in their domains. Paradoxically, the wealthiest and most powerful paid no taxes, while the poorest bore the burden, paying the king, noblemen, and the church. These privileges and their alliance with the monarchy were remnants of feudalism and the Middle Ages.
The clergy, the First Estate, also enjoyed significant privileges, including tax exemption on their extensive landholdings and income derived from tithes.
The Third Estate: The Nation’s Backbone
Conversely, the vast majority of the population (approximately 96%) belonged to the Third Estate (le Tiers État). This diverse group comprised:
- Craftsmen
- Merchants
- Townspeople
- Peasants
- Workers
Within the Third Estate were extremely poor individuals alongside a burgeoning middle class, the bourgeoisie, which was accumulating considerable wealth through diligent efforts in trade and manufacturing. These self-made men of the bourgeoisie grew increasingly resentful. They shouldered the nation’s tax burden and supported the country with their wealth and prosperity, yet lacked the privileges and political influence of the other estates.
The Spark of Revolution: Financial Crisis
By 1789, Louis XVI faced a dire financial situation. The royal treasury was bankrupt, largely due to the immense cost of supporting the American Revolution and engaging in wars against England, its primary adversary. To raise crucial funds, Louis XVI realized he could no longer solely tax the already overburdened peasants or the bourgeoisie; he needed to impose taxes on the privileged classes: the aristocrats and clergy. Some of his enlightened ministers advised this course of action. However, as this was an unprecedented measure, he required the support of an assembly representing all three estates.
The States-General and the Voting Dispute
The States-General (les États Généraux), an advisory assembly convened by the king during critical decisions, had not met in 179 years, a testament to the entrenched nature of absolute monarchy. Traditionally, the States-General voted by estate (one vote per estate). This system usually meant the clergy and nobility aligned to support the king’s wishes, rendering the Third Estate’s vote inconsequential. This time, the Third Estate, representing the burgeoning middle class and the vast majority of the French populace, argued for voting “by head” (one vote per representative) rather than by estate. They had roughly the same number of representatives as the first two estates combined, making this their only viable path to exert influence. The arguments for and against this change were fiercely contested.
The National Assembly and Tennis Court Oath
Ultimately, the frustrated Third Estate, feeling their concerns were ignored, took a radical step. They departed from the palace where the States-General was deliberating and, joined by some reform-minded members from the other two estates, declared themselves the National Assembly. The members of this new body took the historic Tennis Court Oath (le Serment du Jeu de Paume), vowing not to disband until a new constitution for France was established. King Louis XVI had initially supported the idea of taxing the privileged classes, but these developments escalated rapidly, directly challenging his absolute authority. The very concepts of a representative assembly and a written constitution starkly contradicted the foundational principles of the Ancien Régime and absolute monarchy.
The Storming of the Bastille: Revolution Ignites
The formation of the National Assembly instilled hope among the impoverished urban population, particularly in Paris. On July 14, 1789, this hope, mixed with growing unrest and fear that the King might use force to dissolve the Assembly, culminated in a pivotal event: the people of Paris stormed and subsequently destroyed the Bastille, the King’s infamous prison. The Bastille was not only a symbol of royal tyranny but also an armory. The attackers sought weapons to defend the National Assembly and themselves. In attacking the Bastille, they struck a powerful blow against a potent symbol of royal authority. The Third Estate had unequivocally demonstrated its power. The French Revolution had begun.