Foundations of Science and Technology: Key Discoveries and Thinkers
Understanding Science and Technology
Science is knowledge that depends on observation and experimentation, an attempt to understand nature. It is knowledge based on observation, the scientific method, and an ordering of knowledge of nature, forming an organizational system.
Types of Science
- Hard Science: Factual, stable, and undeniable. Examples include mathematics, physics, and chemistry. These fields lead to advancements like cars, televisions, and computers.
- Soft Science: Not always amenable to precise mathematical treatment. Examples include biology, economics, and medicine. Biology is increasingly becoming more “hard.” These fields lead to advancements like drugs, wine making, and diets.
Pioneering Thinkers in Science
Aristotle
Believed one can learn by observation. His theories included the Earth at the center of the universe, and matter being continuous, not atomic. He emphasized evidence or proof.
Copernicus
Proposed the Sun at the center of the universe. His simple scheme explained the motion of the planets, leading to the heliocentric universe model.
Tycho Brahe
Known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observatories in the late 16th century.
Johannes Kepler
Believed in the Copernican system and debated in letters to Tycho Brahe. He is known for his laws of planetary motion, stating that planets orbit in ellipses.
Isaac Newton
Formulated the laws of motion and universal gravitation. Key principles include inertia (every object persists in its state of rest or uniform motion until acted upon by an external force) and the action-reaction law (for every action, there is an equal but opposite reaction). His work includes the fundamental law of gravitation and F=ma.
Alexander Graham Bell
Invented the telephone in 1876.
Huygens
Ptolemy
Developed the first systematic treatment of astronomy, including star charts and tables to compute planetary positions. He also measured the bending of light and proposed a geocentric universe.
Alhazen
Studied reflection and refraction, proposing that light travels in straight lines.
Roger Bacon
Developed the magnifying glass and explained the phenomenon of the rainbow.
Galileo Galilei
Made significant telescopic observations in 1610, including mountains on the Moon, sunspots, satellites of Jupiter, and phases of Venus. He also studied pendulums and balls on inclined planes, contributing greatly to observational science despite facing the Inquisition.
Jesse Ramsden
Created high-quality dividing engines.
Johannes Gutenberg
Invented mechanical movable type printing in Europe around 1439, initiating the printing revolution.
Aldus Manutius
Invented italic type, established the modern use of the semicolon and comma, and introduced inexpensive books in small, portable formats.
Otto von Guericke
Pioneered work with vacuums, demonstrated electrostatic repulsion, and advocated for the reality of action at a distance and absolute space.
Cistercians
Credited with the invention of the alarm clock.
Benjamin Huntsman
Developed a method for making satisfactory cast steel in crucibles.
Albert Einstein
Developed the theory of relativity, including the famous equation E=mc².
Key Scientific Concepts
Inductive Reasoning
A “bottom-up” approach where general propositions are derived from specific examples. It contrasts with deductive reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning
The process of reasoning from one or more general statements to reach a logically certain conclusion (e.g., All men are mortal; Aristotle is a man; therefore, Aristotle is mortal).
The Scientific Method
A body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. It relies on empirical and measurable evidence and typically involves formulating a question, hypothesis, prediction, testing, and analysis.
Technology
The making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems, and methods of organization, used to solve a problem, improve a solution, achieve a goal, or perform a specific function.
Astronomical Events
- Equinox: Occurs twice a year when the Earth’s axis is neither tilted away from nor towards the Sun, with the Sun aligned with the Earth’s equator.
- Solstice: An astronomical event occurring twice yearly when the Sun reaches its highest or lowest excursion relative to the celestial equator.
- Tropics: The region of the Earth surrounding the equator, bounded by the Tropic of Cancer (N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (S) at approximately 23.4° latitude.
Atomic and Nuclear Concepts
- Atoms: The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons.
- Isotopes: Variants of a chemical element that share the same number of protons and electrons but differ in the number of neutrons.
- Fission: The process of splitting an atomic nucleus, especially a heavy nucleus like uranium, into fragments.
- Fusion: The act or process of fusing or melting together, resulting in union.
Rotational Phenomena
- Rotation: A commonly observed phenomenon; the rate of planets’ rotation in the solar system was first measured by tracking visual features.
- Precession: A change in the orientation of a rotational axis of a rotating body, defined as a change in the direction of the rotation axis where the second Euler angle remains constant.
Earth’s Magnetism
Magnetic Poles: Variable points on Earth, near the geographic poles, where the Earth’s magnetic field is most intense, attracting compass needles.
Historical Technological Contributions
- Battle of Hastings: William the Conqueror utilized the latest technology, including stirrups and lances.
- The Chinese: Contributed gunpowder, the compass, advanced looms, steel production, pistons, paper, and printing techniques.