Foundations of Research: Methods, Ethics, and Key Concepts

Posted on Jul 22, 2025 in Psychology and Sociology

Foundations of Research: Key Concepts

A concept is a fundamental component of thinking; an abstract category for organizing sensory experiences. Operationalization is the process of specifying how a concept will be measured. Measurement is the deliberate observation or quantification of a concept.

The Research Process Steps

  • Choose a topic
  • Review literature
  • Formulate a question
  • Select method
  • Collect data
  • Analyze results
  • Draw conclusions
  • Share findings

Research Methods and Approaches

Common Research Methods

  • Survey: Large samples, statistical analysis, but less depth.
  • Experiment: Strong cause-effect control; may lack real-world context.
  • Observation: Rich natural data; time-intensive.
  • Content Analysis: Unobtrusive, suitable for historical data; may miss nuances.
  • Interview: Deep insights; resource-heavy.
  • Case Study: Detailed context; limited generalizability.
  • Secondary Analysis: Efficient use of existing data; no control over original collection.

Operationalizing Abstract Concepts

Operationalization involves defining abstract concepts into measurable indicators.

  • Safety (Qualitative): In-depth interviews exploring personal feelings of security.
  • Safety (Quantitative): Survey scales rating perceived safety on a scale of 1 (unsafe) to 5 (very safe).
  • Love (Qualitative): Open-ended interviews about experiences of intimacy, passion, and commitment.
  • Love (Quantitative): Standardized questionnaires measuring intensity of love components on numerical scales.

Research Approaches

  • Quantitative: Focuses on statistical analysis.
  • Qualitative: Emphasizes context and in-depth understanding.
  • Mixed: Combines both quantitative and qualitative methods.

Key Research Terminology

  • Probability Sampling: Random sampling where each element has an equal chance (e.g., 1/4) of being selected.
  • Non-Probability Sampling: Includes Convenience, Snowball, and Purposive sampling.
  • Variables:
    • Independent Variable (IV): The variable that causes change.
    • Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome that is measured.
  • Abstract Concepts: Examples include “Safety” (secure environment), “Love” (intimacy, passion, commitment), and “Poverty” (lack of resources), which are operationalized into measurable indicators.
  • Reliability: Consistency across measurements.
  • Validity: The accuracy and soundness of measures when assessing abstract concepts like poverty or safety.

Ethical Principles in Research

Ethical considerations apply to every stage of the research process, providing guidelines for professional and moral conduct and obligation.

Core Ethical Principles

  • Informed Consent
  • Anonymity & Confidentiality
  • Minimize Harm
  • Avoid Deception

Research Integrity and Participants

Research Integrity: Honesty in your work (e.g., avoiding fabrication, falsification, plagiarism).

Research Participants: Core principles include Respect for Persons, Concern for Welfare, and Justice.

Deception in Research

Deception is sometimes necessary to access “official” or “on-stage” presentations of reality. It should only be used when no other method suffices and must be followed by a thorough debriefing to address potential harm.

Ethical Challenges and Considerations

  • Cherry-picking findings
  • Research involving vulnerable subjects
  • Internet & big data research
  • Indigenous populations (e.g., CMA apology)
  • Confidentiality concerns (e.g., Ogden case, Bruckert/parent search warrant)

Ensuring Research Quality and Rigor

Key Questions for Research Quality

  • Is there a clear research question?
  • Is the method appropriate?
  • Are the measures valid & reliable (e.g., MBM, LICO, LIM)?
  • Is the sample representative?
  • Are limitations acknowledged?

Common Research Pitfalls and Concepts

  • Sampling Bias: Occurs when the sample isn’t representative, limiting generalizability.
  • Causation vs. Correlation: Correlation doesn’t imply causation; causation requires evidence of a direct effect.
  • Triangulation: Using multiple methods or data sources to validate results.
  • Reflexivity: Researchers’ awareness of how their own biases and presence impact research.

Research Oversight and Study Types

  • Ethical Review Boards (IRBs): Institutional oversight ensures ethical compliance in human-subject research.
  • Limitations & Biases: All research has limitations; transparency strengthens credibility.
  • Generalizability: The extent to which findings apply beyond the study sample.
  • Longitudinal vs. Cross-sectional Studies:
    • Longitudinal: The same subjects are studied over time.
    • Cross-sectional: Data collected at a single point in time.