Foundations of Modern Science: Mechanism, Atomism, and Method

17th Century Scientific Objectivity

The nature of modern science (17th century) is to establish a new scientific objectivity, characterized by three essential features:

• Mechanism

  The scientific worldview is mechanistic, rejecting final causes in favor of efficient, mechanical causes. The universe functions like a cause-and-effect machine. We understand how it works, not its purpose or design. This new understanding benefits humankind by enabling technological control and productive efficiency, shifting from understanding cosmic order (as in Platonic-Aristotelian Theoria) to discovering how things work.

• Atomism

  Scientific objectivity is atomistic, explaining changes in complex things through mechanical causal relationships between constituent elements (atoms), rather than properties of the cosmos as a whole.

• Uniformity

  Scientific objectivity tends towards homogeneity. Qualitatively different things are explained by the same basic constituents and principles (e.g., gravity, inertia) and quantities (weight, volume, shape, mass). These principles apply universally (isotropically), so phenomena like falling apples and planetary motion are explained by the same formula.

The Hypothetical-Deductive Method

Modern science employs the hypothetical-deductive method, combining hypothesis formation and deduction:

1. The Problem

   Define the problem mathematically, quantifying data. Science focuses on significant facts related to scientific laws or theories, or on contradictions, puzzles, anomalies, or competing theories needing resolution.

2. Invention of the Hypothesis

   Formulate a causal, mathematized hypothesis as a possible explanation.

3. Deduction of Consequences

   Predict natural phenomena based on the hypothesis.

4. Testing the Hypothesis

   Compare predictions with observations or experiments.

5. Falsification

   A hypothesis is considered valid if it withstands testing; otherwise, it is falsified.

Thought

Thought is characterized by:

1. Intent

   • Intentionality: Mental states (beliefs, desires, hopes, fears, intentions) relate to objects or states of affairs. Intentions are about something, targeting or pointing the mind toward an object.
   • Intentional states involve linguistically articulated representations.
   • Distinguish between the content of an intentional act and its psychological mode (e.g., believing, desiring, or hating that “John smokes”).

2. Awareness

   • Each state of mind is characterized by consciousness, a self-knowledge expressed through self-attributions of mental states.
   • Self-attributions express a subject’s knowledge of their mental states. Attempts to achieve something express the desire to do so; saying “I want such and such” expresses that desire. This explains the immunity to error of self-attributions: one is not mistaken about their mental states.